1 Introduction

Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) refers to the cultural traditions and practices passed down by our ancestors, encompassing various aspects such as arts and crafts, ceremonial activities, oral performances, and cultural phenomena (Denes et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2023). In recent years, there has been a growing societal concern regarding the protection of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) (Alivizatou-Barakou et al. 2017). Diverse strategies have been employed across various sectors, including video archiving, safeguarding custodians, educational dissemination, and digital technologies, to support its continued existence and safeguarding(X.-Z. Li et al. 2022; Skublewska-Paszkowska et al. 2022). Gamification has emerged as a prominent method for the preservation of intangible cultural assets (Cunha et al. 2018). Numerous initiatives have been launched to explore the integration of ICH into gaming, enabling the subtle dissemination of culture within the context of entertainment. By integrating ICH into games, it is possible to attract a younger audience and a new generation of players, enabling them to engage with and understand traditional culture while being entertained (Dagnino et al. 2015; Grammatikopoulou et al. 2019). This infusion of traditional culture into gaming breathes fresh life into its dissemination. VR technology offers a new avenue for this propagation. Compared with traditional computer games, VR games can provide users with a more immersive experience and more interaction possibilities though image, sound, haptic, and other sensations (Kari and Kosa 2023). Liu et al. (2022) developed an interactive VR system based on a traditional oral performance called “Hua’er,” aiming to provide audiences with an embodied experience and comprehension of the intangible cultural significance associated with this art form. Sun et al. (2024) integrated their expertise in Dunhuang mural-related cultural heritage into a virtual reality system. By combining multimodal interaction techniques, gamification elements, and storytelling approaches, they transformed users into active learners and stimulated their interest in the subject matter. L. Zhang et al. (2023) developed a virtual experiential system to showcase Dongyang bamboo weaving, an intangible cultural heritage. This system effectively creates an environment for the general public to understand bamboo weaving culture and learn the skills associated with it. Through empirical evidence, it has been demonstrated that using this system for traditional intangible cultural heritage skill learning can significantly reduce the learning time required. Through VR games, ICH can be presented to players in the form of virtual reality, enhancing their awareness and understanding of it, thereby promoting the protection and inheritance of ICH (Zhang et al. 2023). Players could actively engage in the traditional skills and performing arts associated with ICH (Zhang and Bryan-Kinns 2022). Through immersive virtual reality experiences, they can profoundly feel the charm of ICH and even have the opportunity to learn and master related skills.

Currently, ICH VR games are utilized as tools for cultural dissemination. However, they encounter challenges in terms of low player engagement and retention rates (Theodoropoulos and Antoniou 2022). In order to effectively foster players’ understanding of intangible cultural heritage through gaming, it is essential to provide sufficient time and opportunities. This can be achieved by encouraging multiple playthroughs of ICH VR games, which will facilitate a deeper immersion and enhance knowledge acquisition of intangible cultural heritage among players. Therefore, it is imperative to conduct in-depth research on players’ continuance intention to use ICH VR games. In past academic research, there have been some scholars who have studied the continuance intentions of using VR. These scholars have conducted empirical research on the continuance intentions of using VR from various perspectives. The main factors affecting users’ continuance intentions of using VR include facilitating conditions, demographic factors, and social influences, user perception, perceived value and so on (C.-C. Lee et al. 2020; Xu et al. 2022b). Among them, hedonic value, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, flow, and perceived enjoyment are the most commonly factors to influence user acceptance of VR. Kari and Kosa (2023) extend the hedonic motivation system acceptance model with utilitarian and inconvenience factors to understand the core factors behind the acceptance and use of VR games. C.-C. Lee et al. (2020) collected 152 inexperienced and 150 experienced players’ data to explore the benefit factors (spatial presence, relaxation and flow) and sacrifice factors (visual fatigue and complexity), which was developed to understand players’ intention to use VR devices to play games. However, due to the categorization of VR games into various genres, there is a noticeable research gap specifically dedicated to VR games centered around intangible cultural heritage. Additionally, these games often face challenges related to low user retention. Therefore, the primary focus of this paper is to address the enhancement of users’ intention to continue engaging with these VR games.

Based on the line of thought in the preceding paragraphs, this study addressed three main research questions (RQs): RQ1: How the intrinsic attributes of intangible cultural heritage VR games affect perception of users? RQ2: What is the relationship between user’s perceived and continuance intention? RQ3: How to improve the user’s continuance intention to play intangible cultural heritage VR games? To addressed the proposed research questions, we proposed the relevant research hypotheses and the conceptual model from design and perspective based on the stimulus-organism-response theory framework and the technology acceptance model. Then, we analysed data collected from 190 people.

The manuscript consists of six sections. Section 2 establishes the theoretical foundation of the study and elucidates the research model by delineating the underlying premises of various hypotheses. Subsequently, Sect. 3 presents a comprehensive overview of our research methodology. Furthermore, Sect. 4 showcases the obtained results. In addition, Sect. 5 provides an in-depth discussion on the findings presented in Sect. 4 along with recommendations for future practical applications. Lastly, Sect. 6 concludes the paper by summarizing its limitations and outlining potential directions for future research.

2 Theoretical framework and research hypothesis

2.1 Research models and related theories

The technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the most classical models for analyzing user attitudes, satisfaction, and acceptance intentions towards new technologies or systems (Davis 1985). TAM is comprised of five fundamental external variables: perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, use attitude, use behavior intention, and actual use. Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are the principal factors determining user acceptance of new technologies(S.-C. Chen et al. 2013). Asan et al. (2017) suggested that when a technology can efficiently and effortlessly aid users in accomplishing their goal tasks, this can enhance user intention to use it. Behavior intention often serves as a fundamental variable in TAM and is widely applied in research models, also being one of the critical factors determining actual use (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Existing studies on VR technology acceptance predominantly employ the TAM model as the foundational research model. For example, K. Lee and Oh (2022) while researching user acceptance intentions for VR/AR sports, added variables such as entertainment experience, educational experience, and aesthetic experience to the basic TAM model. This study takes into account the influence of aesthetic factors on user acceptance. J. Yan et al. (2022) used the TAM model to explore the primary driving factors of customer use of VR services. X. Yan et al. (2022) similarly utilized the TAM model in investigating whether VR has an impact on construction workers participating in safety education and training. From these studies, it can be observed that TAM has a rich theoretical foundation and credibility in research related to technology acceptance. Therefore, this study is appropriate to employ the TAM model as a foundation for exploring the factors influencing user continuance intentions in playing intangible cultural heritage VR games.

Stimulus-organism-response (SOR) originating from environmental psychology, is used to explain the relationship between the physical environment and human behavior. It consists of three parts: ‘S’ (Stimulus) refers to attributes in the environment such as product functions, layout, music, and services; ‘O’ (Organism) refers to an individual’s emotional and cognitive state; ‘R’ (Response) refers to the behavioral response generated by the individual. An individual’s emotional and cognitive state is influenced by stimuli, thereby generating behavioral responses. The SOR theory has been applied in various researches. For instance, in Nguyen et al. (2023) study, they believed that VR stimuli (i.e., vividness and interactivity) could translate into tourists’ attitudes and visiting intentions. Vividness and interactivity could lead to flow reaction of users, and finally lead to satisfaction with VR, and ultimately affect the willingness to travel. In the context of VR shopping malls, Han et al. (2023) posited that vividness, interactivity, and control constitute multidimensional stimuli; telepresence and playfulness are considered organisms; while shopping intention is regarded as the response. Similarly, unique product attributes in VR games may influence players’ psychological responses and subsequently impact their continuance intentions. In this study, the product attributes (S) of intangible cultural heritage VR games include visual attractiveness, interactivity, and immersion. These factors can influence users’ psychological activities such as perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment (O), ultimately impacting their continuance intention (R).

This study integrates the TAM with the SOR theory. The TAM model primarily focuses on individual attitudes and subjective intentions while neglecting the influence of external factors on technology acceptance. On the other hand, the SOR theory emphasizes the impact of the external environment on individual behavior and responses, thus addressing the limitations of the TAM model. By combining both approaches, a more comprehensive understanding of the technology acceptance process can be achieved. The research model is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
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Research model on continuance intention of intangible cultural heritage VR games

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2.2 Relevant concepts and hypothesis proposal

2.2.1 Continuance intention

The continuance intention to use and acceptance of VR games are currently prominent areas of research. Continuance intention refers to users’ inclination to engage in VR game playing again, which is differ from the initial acceptance. Users’ continuance intention to play intangible cultural heritage VR games serves as a fundamental basis for the development and design of such games. In recent years, numerous researchers have examined various influencing factors that contribute to users’ continuance intentions, including demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender), psychological aspects (e.g., perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use), and the value associated with VR (both utilitarian and hedonic).

2.2.2 Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use

The concept of perceived usefulness initially refers to the extent to which an individual believes that utilizing a specific system would enhance their job performance, while perceived ease of use pertains to the degree to which a person believes that using a specific system would be effortless (Davis 1989). In this paper, perceived usefulness is defined as the extent to which users believe playing VR games will improve their knowledge about intangible cultural heritage. Perceived ease of use refers to the ease with which users operate intangible cultural heritage VR games. Both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use can promote the user’s continuous use intention for a technology or system. Xu et al. (2022b), in studying the acceptance of VR games among users, proved that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use play a crucial role in the usage intention. Kang et al. (2023) confirmed the positive and significant impact of perceived usefulness on behavioral intention when studying the acceptance level of AR systems for intangible cultural education among users. Moreover, some studies have also confirmed the impact of VR’s perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use on the intention to use. (Chen et al. 2022; Syed-Abdul et al. 2019) Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1

Perceived usefulness positively impacts continuance intention.

H2

Perceived ease of use positively impacts continuance intention.

2.2.3 Perceived enjoyment

Perceived enjoyment is defined as the degree of pleasure perceived when using a particular system or technology (Venkatesh and Davis 2000). Perceived enjoyment has a significant correlation with behavioral intention (Choe and Schumacher 2015). When users find VR enjoyable, their attitudes and usage intentions towards VR increase (Fussell and Truong 2022). In Yan et al. (2022a) research, they emphasized that the emotional reactions of customers, including pleasure, emotional involvement, and flow state, when accepting VR services are key driving factors for their continued use of VR technology. Additionally, M.-C. Lee and Tsai (2010) proposed a user acceptance model for online games based on the theory of planned behavior and found that the perceived fun of games had a positive impact on their willingness to play the games. When playing intangible cultural heritage VR games is a source of enjoyment, users tend to be fundamentally tempted to accept the game. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3

Perceived enjoyment positively impacts continuance intention.

2.2.4 Visual attractiveness

Visual attractiveness can be defined as the appeal to users of the aesthetic design presented by integrating visual elements of the user interface such as shape, color, and material. Visual attractiveness plays a crucial role in eliciting both external and internal responses, making it a significant characteristic of the virtual world(Babin et al. 1994; Verhagen et al. 2012). Van der Heijden (2003) believed that the visual attractiveness of a website is that the colors and layout used in the webpage design can attract users and lead to perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment. Yang and Han (2021) reconfirmed the positive impact of visual attractiveness on hedonic value in their research on the continued intention to use VR. In contrast, Garcia et al. (2023) found that in the design of educational websites, perceived visual attractiveness is also an important prerequisite for user experience, which can trigger perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. No detailed research has been conducted on the visual attractiveness of VR games related to intangible cultural heritage. The potential impact of this factor on users’ perceptions remains unknown. Combining previous research, we extend its inference to intangible cultural heritage VR games: visual attractiveness inherent in VR games can bring a good game experience for users and contribute to the realization of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H4

Visual attractiveness positively impacts perceived usefulness.

H5

Visual attractiveness positively impacts perceived ease of use.

H6

Visual attractiveness positively impacts perceived enjoyment.

2.2.5 Interactivity

Interactivity refers to the degree to which users can participate in real-time interaction with the form or content of the media. Interaction in VR refers to the fact that users can easily participate in interaction with multiple senses. At the same time, VR is considered the most interactive in electronic games (Steuer et al. 1995). In VR games, designers enhance the player’s experience and trigger users’ sense of participation in the virtual environment. Compared to other technologies, VR provides users with more dynamic sensory information, enhancing user experience. Past research suggests that high interactivity brings significant perceived usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment to users. Altarteer and Charissis (2019) leveraged the real-time product operability advantages of 3D VR systems to help users quickly and flexibly customize 3D models. Interactivity can allow users to control the game with minimal effort, such as reasonable navigation layout and appropriate information prompts. If users can easily complete the novice tutorial and master the game methods, they may feel that VR is easy to use. For instance, Islam et al. (2021) found in his research that interactivity has a significant impact on perceived ease of use. Intangible cultural heritage VR games require a more realistic hands-on experience, especially in games related to specific skills. Interactivity plays a crucial role in enhancing the user perception in these scenarios. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H7

Interactivity positively impacts perceived usefulness.

H8

Interactivity positively impacts perceived ease of use.

H9

Interactivity positively impacts perceived enjoyment.

2.2.6 Immersion

The immersion of VR games refers to the degree to which VR games can allow players to concentrate fully, generate a sense of presence, change their sense of time, and invest wholeheartedly and deeply participate. Compared to Augmented Reality (AR) and Mixed Reality (MR), VR has a stronger sense of immersion, thus immersion is a typical attribute of VR. Players who experience a high level of immersion are more likely to perceive the usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment of VR (Wakefield and Whitten 2006). In turn, in order to satisfy more demands for usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment, users will choose games with a higher level of immersion. More research has also confirmed this, for example, De Canio et al. (2022) discussed theoretically and empirically the influence of VR’s presence, immersion, and ease of use on the pleasure and satisfaction of VR tourism visitors. When Yim et al. (2017) evaluated the effectiveness of augmented reality as an e-commerce tool. They showed that augmented reality, by providing a stronger sense of immersion, led consumers to have positive attitudes towards the medium and purchase intentions. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H10

Immersion positively impacts perceived usefulness.

H11

Immersion positively impacts perceived ease of use.

H12

Immersion positively impacts perceived enjoyment.

3 Method

3.1 Procedure and data collection

The participants recruited by employing the convenience sampling method were 190 people in total from China. The recruitment process involved both online and offline methods. Online recruitment was accomplished by distributing posters to attract participants, including students, professionals from related industries, and individuals from the general public. Offline recruitment was primarily conducted in collaboration with local VR gaming and entertainment establishments. Participants recruited through these approaches had varying degrees of experience with VR gaming, with some having engaged in multiple sessions. The experimental period spanned from May to August 2023, totaling four months. This study falls within the category of low-risk research and has been approved by the ethics committee. Prior to the experiment, all volunteers signed an informed consent form. We fist asked them to play a VR game called pottery VR on steam (see Fig. 2 for the experiment and Fig. 3 for screenshots of the game). Pottery VR is a commercially available game that targets the general public and revolves around the theme of intangible cultural heritage. The gameplay includes processes such as shaping pottery, firing ceramics, glazing, and auctioning. Players are initially provided with a clay embryo, which they can reshape by controlling the controller, completing the shaping of the clay embryo. They then place the molded pottery into the kiln for firing. Next, they can apply color to the pottery, allowing players to freely choose their preferred colors and patterns to decorate the pottery. Finally, players can place their finished creations on the auction table to exchange for in-game currency or gift packages. The game allows participants to fully experience the entire pottery-making process and provides an opportunity to learn some intangible cultural heritage knowledge. In our experimental setup, participants were required to play the game for a minimum of 5 min. If their playtime fell below this threshold, they were considered to have withdrawn from the experiment. Alternatively, participants had the option to play the entire game, which typically took approximately half an hour. On average, participants spent around 15 min playing the game. After playing the game, a survey need to be filled out. The questionnaire was conducted in the local language and translated and reviewed by the two authors mentioned in this article. Both authors have a high level of bilingual proficiency and referred to previous literature during the translation process. The questionnaire was created using the Sojump survey platform, which also provided the QR code for the questionnaire. Each participant who completed the experiment were reward ¥20.

Fig. 2
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A participant playing VR game in laboratory

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Fig. 3
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Screenshots of the potteryVR (a) Kneading process, (b) Selecting a color, (c) Coloring process, (d) Packing process

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The demographic characteristics of the respondents in the valid samples and their understanding of VR games are shown in Table 1. Among them, there were 81 males (42.6%), 109 females (57.4%). 92 respondents were 29 years or younger (48.4%), 52 aged between 30 and 39 years (27.4%), 30 aged between 40 and 49 years (15.8%), 13 aged between 450 and 59 years (6.8%), and 3 aged 60 years or above (1.6%). The educational level of the respondents included 45 high school and below (23.7%), 47 junior college (24.7%), 59 undergraduate (31.1%), and 39 graduate and above (20.5%). Among the 190 people, 43 often play (22.6%), 78 sometimes play (41.1%), and 69 rarely play (36.3%).

Table 1 Demographic characteristics variables of respondents
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3.2 Variable measurement

The questionnaire consists of three parts. The first part briefly introduces the identity of the investigator, the purpose of the survey, the commitment to the confidentiality of the respondents’ information, and a simple introduction to intangible cultural heritage VR games to ensure that the respondents have a deep understanding of this survey. The second part is demographic characteristic questions, including gender, age and education level. As well as one basic questions about VR games: How many times a week do you play VR games? The third part is the measurement questions of the research model. Visual attractiveness was measured with 3 questions by referencing the scales from Van der Heijden (2003), Cyr et al. (2006), and Yang et al. (2016); Interactivity was measured with 4 questions by referencing the scale of J. Chung and Tan (2004); Immersion was measured with 4 questions by referencing the scale of Novak et al. (1999) and Xu et al. (2022a); Perceived usefulness was measured with 3 questions by referencing the scale of Lowry et al. (2012); Perceived ease of use was measured with 5 questions by referencing the scale of Davis (1989); Perceived enjoyment was measured with 3 questions by referencing the scale of Lowry et al. (2012); The questions for continuance intention were adapted from Davis (1989) and Yang et al. (2016) related to the continuous use intention, attitude, and behavioral intention, measured with 3 questions. All questions were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, with “1” meaning “strongly disagree”, “2” meaning “somewhat disagree”, “3” meaning “neutral”, “4” meaning “somewhat agree”, and “5” meaning “strongly agree”. The constructs and question items mentioned above are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Setting of scale variables and items
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4 Results

The SmartPLS 4.0 software was used to test the measurement model and structural model using the method of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The reasons why this method is suitable for this study are as follows: First, PLS is suitable for simultaneously analyzing the complex relationships between multiple independent variables and dependent variables. Second, it can effectively handle data with small sample sizes and usually achieve high levels of statistical power. Third, the requirement for normal distribution of data using the PLS method is relatively low. Fourth, this method is more suitable for exploratory factor analysis (Hair et al. 2019). Hair Jr et al. (2021) recommend conducting data analysis in two steps. The first step is to analyze the measurement model, and the second step is to analyze the structural model.

4.1 Measurement model

The study used 190 questionnaires as the basis to evaluate the measurement model, tested the reliability, convergent validity, collinearity statistics, discriminant validity of the model, and model fit, and all the data conformed to normality. In terms of reliability, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of each variable is in the range of 0.751 to 0.872. The composite reliability is in the range of 0.758 to 0.874, which shows that all the values are above the minimum threshold value of 0.70 (Fornell and Larcker 1981b), indicating that the reliability of each variable is good and meets the corresponding standards. For convergent validity, the factor loadings and AVE values were calculated, as shown in Table 3. All item factor loadings are above the recommended value of 0.7 (range: 0.783–0.886) (Fornell and Larcker 1981a), and all AVE values are above the critical value of 0.5 (range: 0.662–0.779), indicating that the convergent validity of the measurement model is good (Fornell and Larcker 1981b). Additionally, we measured the values of variance inflation factor (VIF), which is used to assess multicollinearity. The VIF values obtained from the table were all below 3, indicating a low level of multicollinearity and a low degree of correlation among the predictor variables (Becker et al. 2015; Mason and Perreault Jr 1991). Discriminant validity measures whether an item reflects the corresponding variable in the model. In Table 4, the diagonal value is the square root of the AVE value of each variable. According to the standard of discriminant validity, this value must be greater than the correlation of other variables to reflect good discriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker 1981a), so it can be seen that the model’s discriminant validity is good. Furthermore, we conducted a model fit evaluation, with an SRMR value of 0.062, a d_UL value of 1.26, a d_G value of 0.478, a Chi-square value of 558.915, and an NFI value of 0.766. These results suggest a well-fitting model constructed in this study (Hair et al. 2011; Hair et al. Jr 2014, 2023).

Table 3 Reliability and validity of the measurement model
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Table 4 Discriminant validity and correlation matrix
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4.2 Structural model and hypothesis testing

The study used the Bootstrapping feature of the SmartPLS 4.0 software to randomly generate 5000 samples to test the path coefficients (ß values), significance levels, and R2 values of the research model. The results are shown in Table 5; Fig. 4. The R2 values of the variables were obtained through the PLS algorithm. The value of perceived usefulness is 0.222, perceived ease of use is 0.105, perceived enjoyment is 0.323, and continuance intention is 0.304. The R2 value can evaluate the explanatory power of the model. A good explanatory power requires an R2 value greater than 0.2 (Ajamieh et al. 2016). According to the path results, most of the hypotheses have been verified. In the direct influence on continuance intention, the positive impact of perceived enjoyment (ß = 0.323, p < 0.001) is the most significant, followed by perceived usefulness (ß = 0.268, p < 0.05), and finally perceived ease of use (ß = 0.164, p < 0.05). Visual attractiveness has the most significant positive impact on perceived enjoyment (ß = 0.267, p < 0.001), and also has a significant positive impact on perceived usefulness (ß = 0.236, p < 0.01). Interactivity has a very significant positive impact on perceived enjoyment (ß = 0.264, p < 0.001). Immersion has a significant positive impact on perceived ease of use (ß = 0.236, p < 0.01), perceived enjoyment (ß = 0.254, p < 0.01), and perceived usefulness (ß = 0.278, p < 0.05). Therefore, the above results show that the research hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4, H6, H9, H10, H11, and H12 are established, and the hypotheses H5, H7, and H8 are not established.

Table 5 The results of hypothesis testing
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Fig. 4
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Model test result

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5 Discussion and implications

The present study constructed a comprehensive theoretical model to explore the influence of intangible cultural heritage VR games’ intrinsic attributes on the continuance intention. The results largely supported the research hypotheses, with 9 out of 12 hypotheses validated. Overall, the findings suggest that the visual attractiveness, interactivity, and immersion can act as stimuli affecting users’ emotional and cognitive responses, ultimately influencing continuance intention. Therefore, the research model constructed using the SOR theory in conjunction with the TAM model, which is suitable for the subject of this study. Consistent with the early research of Xu et al. (2022b), the results suggest that both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in the TAM model are antecedent variables for VR play intention for both the elderly and adult populations, respectively supporting hypotheses H1 and H2. Moreover, perceived enjoyment leading to users’ continuance intention aligns with the early research of Huang (2020). These research results suggest that a real intangible cultural heritage VR gaming experience can affect people’s perceptual mechanisms, especially their sense of enjoyment (for each unit increase in user’s perceived enjoyment, the corresponding continuance intention increases by 0.324 units). Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are fundamental factors influencing users’ adoption of VR, including VR games related to intangible cultural heritage. For designers, it is crucial to ensure that players can easily understand and master the game controls, avoiding overly complex mechanisms, and striving for simplicity and intuitiveness (Chen et al. 2022). Moreover, it is noteworthy that while entertainment is a fundamental attribute of games, intangible cultural heritage games tend to emphasize seriousness and educational impact. The results of this study indicate the critical importance of balancing the seriousness and enjoyment aspects of ICH VR games. In the process of intangible cultural heritage VR game design and development, the focus should be on how to enhance users’ sense of enjoyment.

Furthermore, users’ perception of intangible cultural heritage VR games is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic attributes, which in turn affect their perceived usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment. This study reveals that the design and user experience attributes of intangible cultural heritage VR games have varying degrees of impact on user perception and continuance intention. Therefore, it provides valuable insights for enhancing the design and user experience of intangible cultural heritage VR games.

Firstly, the study confirmed that visual attractiveness has a positive impact on perceived usefulness. This aligns with the findings of Garcia et al. (2023) that the attractiveness of a webpage leads to prolonged user engagement. This indicates that the visual attractiveness of intangible cultural heritage VR games, much like that of web pages, significantly influences user engagement and retention (Sonderegger and Sauer 2010). At the same time, visual attractiveness also has a positive effect on perceived enjoyment, which is consistent with the findings of Yang and Han (2021). However, visual attractiveness did not significantly affect perceived ease of use in this study, possibly because visual elements only trigger superficial emotional responses in users (Demirbilek and Sener 2003) and do not involve deeper operation. When users prioritize system functionality and usability, they may overlook the impact of visual attractiveness on perceived ease of use. In other words, when the functionality and usability of a product are met, the impact of visual appeal on user experience becomes secondary. Users will focus on the practicality of the product and disregard visual aspects (Sonderegger and Sauer 2010). As Tractinsky et al. (2000) suggest, aesthetic design of a product does indeed affect user perception of usability, but this influence is often indirect, achieved through users’ emotional responses. When users concentrate on the functionality of the system, the impact of visual appeal is weakened. Compared to purely exhibition-based VR experiences (Cecotti et al. 2024), the pottery game chosen for this study places greater emphasis on operability, to a certain extent, reduce users’ visual attention. In general, visual attractiveness is considered one of the important attributes of VR games that can trigger positive emotional responses in users. When designing a game, it is important to consider various aspects of its visual elements. By accurately replicating the materials, colors, and textures of real artifacts, virtual reality games based on intangible cultural heritage can create more realistic scenes and situations, allowing users to experience a sense of immersion. Furthermore, the design of visual elements should also take into account the overall style and aesthetics of the game to ensure an appealing appearance and visual attractiveness (Li et al. 2023). Carefully designed interfaces, captivating graphics, and animation effects can capture users’ attention and provide a pleasurable visual experience.

Secondly, intangible cultural heritage VR games’ interactivity significantly influences users’ continuance intention. Research findings indicate that interactivity has a positive effect on perceived enjoyment, consistent with Novak et al.‘s (1999) findings, suggesting that effective interaction can generate pleasure in players. However, this study found no significant impact of intangible cultural heritage VR game interactivity on users’ perceived usefulness and ease of use, which contrasts with Islam et al.‘s (2021) research results focusing on webpages rather than intangible cultural heritage VR games. The reason for this difference lies in the fact that the interaction methods in VR systems are inherently more complex compared to traditional web-based interactions, requiring users to invest more time and effort in adaptation and learning. This complexity can lead to increased cognitive load, subsequently reducing users’ perceived usefulness and ease of use of the system (Guo and Poole 2009). In the design of VR games related to intangible cultural heritage, complex interaction methods are often employed to enhance user experience. However, due to habits and prior experiences, individuals tend to rely more on familiar interaction patterns. Meanwhile, with the advancement of technology, user experience has transcended mere perceived usefulness and usability. The focus of users has also moved beyond simple metrics like task completion and efficiency, with interactivity being just one among many factors (Hassenzahl 2008; Hassenzahl and Tractinsky 2006). As a result, the impact of interactivity on perceived usefulness and ease of use becomes less significant. Interactive behavior involves purposeful actions by users and system feedback; thus, comprehensive consideration is required for both users and systems along with their relationship dynamics. Fully considering the users entails conducting comprehensive research on their functional and non-functional requirements (Chung et al. 2012), in order to establish a corresponding system that can effectively provide users with information and feedback, thereby establishing an interactive loop. In the realm of VR games, interactivity is achieved through various channels and senses, including hand gestures, head movements, body movements, eye movements, and voice commands (Steuer et al. 1995). Designing for interactivity necessitates several considerations during the design process. Firstly, it is crucial to ensure that players can easily comprehend and master the game’s controls by avoiding overly complex mechanisms and striving for simplicity and intuitiveness. Additionally, incorporating natural gestures and actions into gameplay allows players to actively participate in the virtual environment. Inheritance of intangible cultural heritage is essentially the inheritance of skills, which is in fact a specific interaction between the body and the object, so the more natural gestures and actions into the gameplay, the more the user can feel the specific experience of making the game. Secondly, providing clear visual and auditory feedback enables players to understand their actions as well as changes within the game world. For instance, when a player interacts with an object or completes a task successfully; appropriate animations along with sound effects should be displayed accordingly. Lastly but importantly maintaining reasonable interaction feedback time ensures immediate response to player operations without excessive delays which may lead to discomfort or loss of interest.

Finally, in line with previous research findings, immersion has a significant impact on perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and perceived enjoyment. This also confirms the research by De Canio et al. (2022) suggesting that immersion influences users’ sense of pleasure. The results indicate that the path coefficients of immersion on user perception are higher than those of visual attractiveness and interactivity, highlighting the greater influence of immersion. A more immersive virtual environment provided by intangible cultural heritage VR games can help users relax and fully immerse themselves in the game, thereby increasing their intention to replay it. Therefore, designers and developers should focus on enhancing the immersion of VR games through realistic environmental effects (e.g., restoring ICH production scenes); providing realistic 3D sound effects for accurate spatial positioning; incorporating cultural content to enhance emotional experiences through storytelling techniques like character empathy and emotional feedback; adding multisensory experiences like touch and smell to make users feel more involved.

6 Conclusions and limitations

6.1 Conclusions

Understanding the influence of game design factors and user experience elements on the continuance intention to play intangible cultural heritage VR games can effectively enhance the design and development of VR games. This study integrates the SOR theory and TAM model to construct a comprehensive model that examines the influencing factors on continuance intention to play intangible cultural heritage VR games. The findings reveal that visual attractiveness, interactivity, and immersion in intangible cultural heritage VR games significantly impacts user’s continuance intention to play. When intangible cultural heritage VR game visuals are more appealing, with higher levels of interactivity and immersion, users are more likely to perceive usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment, thereby increasing their inclination towards playing intangible cultural heritage VR games again.

This research makes significant contributions to both theory and practice by providing a comprehensive framework for the design and development of VR games in the field of intangible cultural heritage. It offers practical guidance to designers and developers while promoting the preservation and inheritance of intangible cultural heritage through the utilization of new technologies. In terms of theoretical contributions, this study constructs a novel theoretical model specifically designed to guide the design and development processes of VR games within the domain of intangible cultural heritage. The primary objective of this model is to ensure that these processes effectively meet user needs while simultaneously fulfilling the overarching goals of preserving and inheriting intangible cultural heritage. By integrating SOR theory with the TAM, this research surpasses the limitations of a singular perspective and establishes a more comprehensive theoretical framework. Through empirical research and in-depth analysis of factors influencing users’ continued intentions, the relationships among these influencing factors have been identified and elucidated. In terms of practical contributions, this study presents detailed strategies for the design and development of VR games specifically tailored to the context of intangible cultural heritage. These strategies encompass various aspects, including visual effects, interactive experiences, and immersion, providing valuable guidance to designers and developers operating within this domain. Simultaneously, this research offers fresh insights into the integration of intangible cultural heritage preservation with emerging technologies, opening up new avenues for exploration and innovation.

6.2 Limitations and future research

Although this study has identified influencing factors for the continuance intention to play intangible cultural heritage VR games in terms of design and user experience, there are still some limitations. Firstly, the widespread adoption of intangible cultural heritage VR games is yet to be achieved, particularly in remote and impoverished areas; thus, our research does not account for potential cognitive differences among participants due to regional and cultural factors. As technology advances and society progresses, certain resistance factors may undergo changes. Additionally, in future research, it would be beneficial to further categorize the study participants, exploring differences among various regions and cultural backgrounds. This would contribute to a more comprehensive and generalizable study. Secondly, the sample size employed in this study is insufficiently large, which poses a limitation on its generalizability. Future studies could consider a larger and more diverse sample to enhance the external validity. Furthermore, it should be noted that this study only focused on a single ICH VR game. In the future, there is potential to explore VR experiences related to folk customs, legends, and other forms of intangible cultural heritage. Lastly, this study solely examined the impact of design and user experience factors on continuance intention while neglecting other influential aspects such as social dynamics, educational influences, cultural disparities etc. Future research can build upon these findings by analyzing additional combinations of variables to comprehensively address this research problem.