1 Introduction

Competencies encompass the knowledge, skills, motivation, attitudes, and values that enable the resolution of challenges emerging within various situations and contexts (Rahmawati et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2021). Competency-based education focuses on learners’ learning outcomes rather than merely instructing teachers on “what to teach.” Competencies cannot be simply taught; they must be nurtured and developed (Baumert et al., 2013). This occurs within a transformative, action-oriented pedagogical framework (Caena & Redecker, 2019; Barth, 2015). This duality implies that learners must possess abilities that facilitate their own growth, while educators must also possess the relevant competencies, enabling them to support and implement students’ competency development (Brandt et al., 2019; McGarr & McDonagh, 2019). The fundamental questions raised, therefore, revolve around what constitutes competence, what qualifies as substantive knowledge, and how educators attempt to foster and convey these through didactic methods (Shulman, 1987; Weinert, 2001).

Numerous conceptual frameworks have been developed to comprehensively elucidate the components of digital competence, alongside the development of various appropriate assessment tools. Several self-assessment tools pertain to teachers and school leaders’ digital competencies (Cabero-Almenara et al., 2020; Rieckmann, 2018; Punie et al., 2013). However, most of these instruments concentrate on preparing educators (McGarr & McDonagh, 2019; Brandt et al., 2019; Koehler & Mishra, 2009). Recent commentary underscores the need to examine educational contexts beyond general and lower secondary education (Vare et al., 2019; Kilbrink et al., 2020; Roll & Ifenthaler, 2020a).

Teachers’ digital competencies and competency development are approached in various ways within the scholarly literature (e.g., Almerich et al., 2016; Ghomi et al., 2019; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2020; Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018). The involved competencies are diverse, encompassing technological skills, pedagogical components, each of which relates to the context of teaching (Industry 4.0; Also see: Ghomi et al., 2019; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2020; Teo et al., 2021). The technological aspect of digital competencies includes skills necessary for using computers, mobile devices, and applications (Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018). Teachers must enhance their digital abilities, including both software and hardware utilization (Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al., 2018; Guzman & Nussbaum, 2009). Lindsay (2016) notes that educators must also grasp mobile ICT technologies, as learning-teaching processes are increasingly occurring within informal contexts, where learning can take place anytime and anywhere. The examined studies (Rosenberg & Koehler, 2015mäläinen & Cattaneo, 2015; Kontio & Lundmark, 2021) further emphasize that vocational learners and instructors require digital problem-solving skills beyond adequate competencies. Moreover, it’s crucial to analyse and assess information (referred to as information literacy). The study reflects on our pivotal observation, mentioned already in our introduction, drawing attention to the necessity of teachers’ self-reflection regarding the digital environment. Digital development should include a review of self-efficacy related to skills: it’s indispensable for educators to reflect on their actions in the digital environment and strive to comprehend them (Roll & Ifenthaler, 2021; Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018; Choi et al., 2018).

However, considering the evolving work requirements of Industry 4.0, vocational educators must possess digital competencies that are not only subject-specific but also multidisciplinary. Based on statements from corporate trainers, multidisciplinary digital competencies integrate specific dimensions of various digital competence or digital literacy frameworks, aiming for individuals to possess the willingness, abilities, and skills for appropriate individual and societal responsible behaviour in the digital context of professional, social, and personal situations (Roll & Ifenthaler, 2020a, b). The seven dimensions of multidisciplinary digital competencies are as follows:

  • Attitude towards digitalization,

  • Management of digital tools,

  • Information literacy,

  • Application of digital security,

  • Collaboration through digital communication,

  • Resolution of digital problems,

  • Reflection on interconnected and digital environments (Roll & Ifenthaler, 2021).

1.1 The Pedagogical Aspects of Digital Competencies

The pedagogical component of teachers’ digital competencies encompasses the application of knowledge in technology resources for curriculum planning, designing teaching-learning processes, and their professional development (Suadad et al., 2022). Wadmany and Kliachko (2014) noted that digitalization can aid educators in creating supportive learning environments, presenting phenomena and processes, and generally enhancing learning opportunities to address a wide range of learners’ needs. The pedagogical dimension also includes skills necessary for creating and using digital learning materials, establishing technologically enriched learning environments, and utilizing mobile and other technologies for teaching and learning (Suadad et al., 2022; Lindsay, 2016). Guzman and Nussbaum (2009) and Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al. (2018) have provided an overview of the pedagogical component of teachers’ digital competencies. The pedagogical/curricular competence entails the logical and optimized implementation of technology (aligned with the institution’s mission and curriculum), while the didactic/methodological competence enriches learning experiences through the motivational application of ICT in various educational activities. The pedagogical dimension of digital competencies also includes an evaluating/examining aspect, focusing on feedback, enhancing students’ learning processes, and the general operation of ICT within educational environments. These various components of digital competencies are interconnected, and distinguishing between the technological and pedagogical aspects of work related to digitalization can be challenging. For example, digital security, encompassing ethical and legal considerations of ICT use, as well as secure handling of phenomena like malicious programs, identity theft, password protection, device security, and information sharing, encompasses both technological and pedagogical perspectives (Suadad et al., 2022; Roll & Ifenthaler, 2021; Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018). Furthermore, the attitude towards digitalization includes both technological and pedagogical elements, with these attitudes needing to be positive when working with digital tools. Moreover, positive attitudes are required towards the idea that digitalization can bring added value to teaching, its planning, and assessment (Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al., 2018; Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018). These connections are evident within the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework for integrating technology into teaching (McGarr & McDonagh, 2019; Brandt et al., 2019; Koehler & Mishra, 2009).

The TPACK Model builds upon the three forms of teacher knowledge, namely technological, pedagogical, and content-based interactions. If educators wish to successfully incorporate digitalization into their teaching, they must integrate all three forms of knowledge into theory and practice. Koehler and Mishra (2009) also point out that digital integration within teaching varies in degree among teachers. They note that teaching with technology is not straightforward and requires an ongoing recognition of the connections between teaching context, content knowledge, pedagogical approaches, and ICT possibilities. Therefore, to support the development of teachers’ digital competencies, teacher training must emphasize factors that both support and challenge the enhancement of these competencies. It’s essential to acknowledge that these competencies typically develop through a complex synergy of individual and contextual factors (Rosenberg & Koehler, 2015; Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al., 2018; Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018).

Personal factors, such as age, gender, parents’ education level, and native language proficiency, play a significant role in the process. However, certain studies have shown that contextual factors (e.g., school ICT resources and environment, positive collegial pressure, leadership, and tool support) also have a significant impact on teachers’ work (Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al., 2018; Guzman & Nussbaum, 2009). Hämäläinen and Cattaneo (2015) found that digital competencies used outside the workplace contribute to its technological component. Choi et al. (2018) refer to teachers as “digital citizens” – individuals who need to acquire ICT meta-competencies, such as ethical and responsible use. Kreijns et al. (2013) noted that positive social or collegial pressure and shared interest in using ICT for teaching motivate educators. Several researchers concluded that the communication/relational aspect of teachers’ ICT competencies is a vital element, encompassing educational interaction and collaboration (Guzman & Nussbaum, 2009; Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al., 2018).

While the digitalization of vocational education in Sweden is considered an under-researched area (Asplund & Kontio, 2020), in recent years, significant and interesting research has emerged on this topic in the Northern European country. Pertaining to our subject, there is a crucial Swedish study that explores digitalization within vocational education. Researchers delved into how various digital technologies such as blogs, video-based instructions, e-portfolios, workplace simulations, and hyper videos (Belaya, 2018; Hamid et al., 2020; Jossberger et al., 2015) can be utilized in vocational education. Furthermore, a recent study investigated how digital technologies can be applied in vocational training to establish an authentic connection with the world of work (Dobricki et al., 2020). The findings suggest that digitalization often involves teachers using digital photos, videos, and the internet for instructional scaffolding or learning tasks. In recent examples, videos showcasing workplace situations and scenarios in 3D virtual environments are used to imitate authentic situations within vocational education (Dobricki et al., 2020). However, curriculum selection has proven to be a complex task, involving factors such as available resources, costs, and time required for material selection (Kontio & Lundmark, 2021). Enochsson and colleagues (2021) highlight how vocational educators perceive challenges in keeping pace with industry advancements, lack of access to technologically relevant resources within schools, and difficulties in collaborating with internship providers. Asplund and Kontio (2020) examined challenges and opportunities related to the digitalization of vocational education, revealing collective smartphone use by students for interaction during classes. Alongside the characteristic creative-critical perspective of Scandinavians, a robust Spanish research direction is also emerging.

Spanish research primarily originates from the framework of DigCompEdu, which is the European Framework for Digital Competence of Educators. DigCompEdu is a scientifically grounded framework that outlines what it means for educators to be digitally competent (Ghomi et al., 2019; Punie et al., 2013). This framework provides a general reference for supporting the development of teacher-specific digital competencies across Europe. DigCompEdu targets educators at all levels of education (Rieckmann, 2018), from early childhood to higher education and adult education, including general and vocational education, special education, and non-formal learning environments. The framework details 22 competencies across six areas (Cabero-Almenara et al., 2020; Punie et al., 2013), with the emphasis not placed on technical knowledge but rather on how digital technologies can be leveraged to enhance and innovate education and training. DigCompEdu serves as a guide to support educators in effectively integrating digital tools and strategies into their teaching practices, thus improving the learning experience for students across various educational contexts.

Having and developing digital competences is an indispensable part of a teacher’s career. The aim of our exploratory research was, among others, to investigate the current state of digital competences among teachers in agricultural education. An important research question was to identify the factors that determine the development of this competence and the needs that the teachers themselves have for its development, as well as their suggestions for more effective integration of its professional and didactic “yield” into the teaching and learning processes.

2 Methodology

Digital competences have recently become indispensable in the world of teaching and learning in Hungarian agricultural education. Disciplinary agricultural (professional) knowledge growth also requires the development of competences, the ever increasing practice of precision farming requires all these, while at the same time the didactic and methodological framework is shifting more and more towards the online form due to the needs of young age groups. As an important goal of the Hungarian education policy is to provide all vocational schools with modern ICT tools, it becomes important for teachers and trainers to be familiar with this field. We often encounter cases where the infrastructure is there, but the instructor does not know how to use the tools. From this point of view, it is therefore very important to draw up an inventory of the situation and, based on the experience gained (what factors influence the presence or absence of competences), to think through an action plan on how to improve the gaps that arise in an organised way. Both our Public Education Act and our Vocational Training Act set out the objectives for the development of digital skills (Hungarian Ministry of Innovation and Technology, 2019), so it is also important to assess in which parts of the education, training and training processes the instructor’s knowledge of this type is already present and in which directions future developments can be envisaged.

In order to gain insights into the digital attitudes and competency levels of educators within the Hungarian agricultural vocational education system, we conducted a quantitative questionnaire survey. Our aim was to understand the significant factors influencing their digital attitudes and competencies, as well as the extent to which digital knowledge, skills, and competencies are integrated into their teaching and learning practices. Additionally, we aimed to use the open-ended questions in the questionnaire to assess genuine needs, allowing authentic voices to articulate the type of assistance and support required for the enhancement of their digital capabilities. The planning of the research was made difficult by the fact that no comprehensive quantitative research had yet been prepared that would have investigated the digital competence level and attitudes of teachers working in Hungarian agricultural vocational training. However, we were able to rely on the empirical experiences we gained during the management of our agricultural engineering master’s degree in, with particular regard to our real experiences at the agricultural vocational high schools. We would have liked to include all agricultural vocational training centers in the research, but we did not have the opportunity to do, so when we formulated the sample, we stroved to select a heterogeneous sample that represent all levels of the centers.

Based on this, our exploratory questionnaire study was structured around the following research questions:

Q1: What level of information and communication technology (ICT) knowledge, skills, and competencies do the participating Hungarian agricultural vocational educators possess?

Q2: Which factors most prominently influence the level of digital competency of educators?

Q3: How do respondent educators incorporate their digital skills into their teaching and learning processes?

Q4: In light of educator responses, how can digital technologies be leveraged to enhance and innovate teaching and training within vocational education?

Currently in Hungary, there are five Agricultural Vocational Training Centres, comprising 61 member institutions. Among these, online surveys were successfully conducted in three of the centre’s schools between July 4th and 27th, 2023. The number of usable questionnaires amounted to 396. The Southern Agricultural Vocational Training Centre had 244 respondents, the Central Hungarian Agricultural Vocational Training Centre had 116, and the Transdanubian Agricultural Vocational Training Centre had 16 teachers who completed our questionnaire in a viable manner. Of the responding teachers, 59.2% were female, and 40.8% were male. The age distribution within our sample reflects a notably aging community of vocational educators: 1% aged 20–29; 9.1% aged 30–39; 36.5% aged 40–49; 47.7% aged 50–64; and 5.6% aged 65 and above. Teaching experience paints a more diversified picture: 20.2% with 0–9 years of experience; 27.3% with 10–19 years; 29.3% with 20–29 years; 17.2% with 30–39 years; and 6.1% with over 40 years of experience.

The completion of the questionnaire was voluntary and anonymous. The survey was non-representative, but it is indicative for our target group. The questionnaire consisted of 14 closed-ended and 8 open-ended questions in order to extract quality information, with which we helped the interpretation of measurable results. For the closed-ended questions, we worked with nominal and interval (Likert scale) variables. To process the questionnaire database, we utilized the statistical software package called IBM SPSS Statistics 20. In analysing the results, we aimed to uncover dependency relationships among various attributes, using cross-tabulation analysis in addition to general descriptive analysis. Cross-tabulation analysis is a widely used analysis method that examines the relationship between two or more variables and shows their combined frequency distribution. The simplicity of the analysis and the easy interpretability of the information obtained are a huge advantage for both researchers and users, which is why it is one of the most frequently used methods. By performing the analysis, we are looking for an answer to whether the nominal, ordinal or interval variables are related to each other. The Pearson’s Chi-square test in our study is important because if there is a statistical correlation between the individual variables, then these findings can be generalized to Hungarian agricultural teachers, so more attention should be paid to these factors in the development processes of digital competences in vocational training.

According to the null hypothesis (H0), there is no relationship between the variables under examination. If we reject the null hypothesis during the study, we identify a significant relationship. We tested the existence of this relationship using Pearson’s Chi-square test. If the significance level (Asymp.Sig. (2-sided)) is below the commonly accepted threshold of 0.05% in the field of social sciences, a relationship exists between the variables under investigation. It has been confirmed in the presented results that in the Chi-square tests, the ratio of cells containing fewer than 5 data points should be less than 20%. To evaluate the strength of the relationship, we employed Cramer’s V and Eta association coefficients. Cramer’s V is a measure for the strength of an association for tables larger than 2 × 2. It ranges from 0 to 1, with no negative values. It can be used in the case of nominal scale variables. The Eta Coefficient test measures the strength of association between a categorical variable (e.g., sex, occupation, ethnicity), usually the independent variable, and a scale or interval-level variable (e.g., income, weight, test score), typically the dependent variable.

The strength of relationships was interpreted as follows during the study: 0–0.199: weak relationship; 0.200–0.399: moderately strong relationship; 0.400 and above: strong relationship (Akoglu, 2018; Sajtos & Mitev, 2007).

3 Results

3.1 The Level of ICT Knowledge of Hungarian Agricultural Teachers

Based on their digital abilities, responding teachers categorized themselves into three groups. 73.7% assessed themselves as advanced in this competency area, 16.2% as beginners, and 10.1% as proficient. Teachers who received formal or informal assistance for the development of their digital abilities predominantly indicated either advanced or proficient levels (χ2 = 24.972; df = 2; p < 0.001; Eta = 0.252). Around 70.71% of the teachers have already participated in digital competency development workshops, 76.53% have received collegial assistance in this area, and 68.37% have received further help from family members, friends, or acquaintances. Self-directed skill development is also significant, as 72.73% of them utilize this method to enhance their ICT knowledge.

3.2 Factors Influencing the Level of Digital Competence of Teachers

Among those with digital weaknesses, the following were highlighted: limited knowledge of smartboard usage; difficulties in assembling pre-lesson ICT equipment; lack of application-level knowledge in new ICT methods/applications/platforms that support learning; higher-level utilization of the Office suite; inadequate ICT infrastructure; lack of English language proficiency; challenges in online content creation leading to time loss due to lack of routine and sufficient knowledge; video editing shortcomings; lack of knowledge in the field of artificial intelligence; use of cloud-based storage; lack of programming skills and knowledge of specific software; many ICT applications becoming paid or transitioning to such after the COVID period.

The assessment of digital competencies in teaching significantly depends on the respondents’ gender (χ2 = 14.283; df = 3; p = 0.003; Cramer’s V = 0.194) and the number of years spent in education (χ2 = 36.771; df = 12; p < 0.001; Cramer’s V = 0.179). The strength of these relationships is of moderate significance in the case of the two cross-tabulation analysis. A higher proportion of male respondents (33.3%) than female respondents (25.0%) answered that the digital world is very close to them, that they move well in it and that it is essential for education. Based on the number of years spent as a teacher, it emerged that respondents with 20 years of experience or less prefer the digital educational environment significantly.

3.3 The Use of Digital Competences in Teaching Processes

An important aspect of our research was to explore how teachers in agricultural vocational education perceive the necessity and presence of digital competencies within the educational processes. Only 28.1% of the responding teachers stated that they are very close to the digital world, are proficient in it, and consider it indispensable for teaching. As anticipated, the majority of the surveyed teachers, 68.8% to be precise, while generally valuing digital teaching methods, sometimes find classical methods to be superior. A positive outcome is that a mere 3% of the teachers in question perceive the digital world as distant, with 2% of them expressing a willingness to improve in this area if provided with additional support.

Within the group of responding teachers, we examined whether well-defined digital competency profiles exist based on their frequency of ICT tool usage, preferred ICT tools and digital platforms, and the types of lessons during which they employ these tools.

Figure 1 illustrates how the surveyed teachers employ ICT tools in their teaching activities, the purposes for which they use these tools, their familiarity with the online sociometry of their classes and students, and their understanding of students’ digital competency levels. The respondents were asked to evaluate the statements we formulated based on how applicable they are to their experiences.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Source: Own calculations (2023) (N = 396)

The role of ICT tools in teaching practice (%).

Full size image

For the responding teachers, 26.3% strongly and 45.5% mostly agree that they frequently use various ICT tools to collect information about their students’ current interests and motivations. Unsurprisingly, there is a significant and strong correlation identified between this fact and how teachers evaluated their own digital competency levels (χ2 = 98.923; df = 6; p < 0.001; Eta = 0.418). Associated with this, 11.1% strongly and 48.5% mostly indicate that they are familiar with the online sociometry of their class communities, including which social media platforms are used and who is friends with whom. These pieces of information are highly useful for understanding and analysing various pedagogical situations, as well as for resolving potential issues. Teachers also possess a relatively similar level of awareness about their students’ digital competency levels (20.2% strongly, 48.5% mostly). This is crucial from the perspective of ICT-supported teaching and learning processes. The results illustrate emerging shifts in the role of teachers. In addition to traditional classroom interactions, teachers also take on a supportive, tutoring role, informally aiding, and guiding vocational education students through online platforms (82.8%). A majority of teachers (87.9%) preferentially use the internet for compiling teaching materials and curriculum development. The use of digital platforms has significantly increased compared to the period before COVID-19. Two-thirds of the surveyed teachers regularly coordinate and communicate with colleagues and parents through online platforms. Among the ICT tools, laptops/notebooks (84.8%) and smartphones (85.9%) are the most frequently used on a daily basis.

We also inquired about the digital platforms preferred and used by the responding teachers. On a daily basis, they use the internet (97.0%), email (89.9%), and the Hungarian electronic gradebook “E-Kréta” (84.8%), which provides up-to-date academic information for students and parents. Virtual classrooms like Google Classroom and Microsoft Teams are used less frequently since the transition to in-person teaching, with 22.2% using them several times a week and 26.3% using them multiple times a month. Online storage platforms like Google Drive and Dropbox are used daily by 25.3% of respondents, several times a week by 21.2%, and multiple times a month by 22.2%. Conversely, domestic large file-sharing applications are less popular. Educational support applications (e.g., YouTube, Kahoot, LearningApps, Quizlet, Plant identification apps, etc.) are used by 20.2% of surveyed teachers on a daily basis, 32.3% several times a week, and 29.3% multiple times a month for their teaching activities. Applications assisting knowledge checking and evaluation (e.g., Redmenta) are less favoured, with 4% using them daily, 18.2% several times a week, and 16.2% multiple times a month. Online professional materials and educational resources are used daily by 34.3%, several times a week by 33.3%, and multiple times a month by 22.2% of teachers.

Table 1 shows how the participating teachers apply the aforementioned learning and teaching-supporting ICT tools and applications with varying frequencies during different types of lessons.

Table 1 Frequency of use of ICT tools by lesson type (%).
Full size table

3.4 The Educational Innovation Role of Digital Technologies

Based on the responses of teachers, ICT tools are employed in every type of lesson. 39.4% of the responding teachers indicated a strong correlation between the development of digital competencies and the ICT infrastructure available to both the teacher and the institution. 58.6% of them do not dispute this correlation; however, they believe that proficiency in the digital realm is not solely determined by the available resources. Only 2% of the respondents stated that there is no connection between these factors. The frequency of application is naturally influenced by the ICT infrastructure within schools and among students, as well as the density of agricultural vocational training curricula and the composition of classes. In Hungarian agricultural vocational schools, the proportion of students with special educational needs and those from disadvantaged backgrounds is high. The use of ICT tools provides an opportunity for differentiated and interactive teaching, but according to the respondents, due to the mentioned factors, such types of lesson planning and execution require meticulous design.

4 Discussion

Research focusing on the digital competencies of educators in vocational education may not be abundant, but the recent trend indicates an increase. This unique context necessitates consideration of the peculiarities within the vocational education system. In this context, technology’s use is of paramount importance for establishing connections between vocational learning venues, enhancing the delineation between school-based and workplace-based pathways (Roll & Ifenthaler, 2020b; Belaya, 2018; Lucas et al., 2021). Professional programs often accentuate their proximity to practical application due to their connection to professional life, where practical knowledge takes precedence (Cattaneo et al., 2021; Belaya, 2018; Billett, 2016; Roll & Ifenthaler, 2021; Dobricki et al., 2020; Enochsson et al., 2021). However, schools and workplaces constitute distinct contexts characterized by different norms and social practices. Moreover, vocational education faces challenges due to the rapid changes occurring in the professional realm, leading to potential contradictions. Being a vocational educator entails constant adaptation to the ever-changing dynamics of professional life and teaching practices. Their mission is to prepare students for both work and citizenship. The world of work is subject to rapid and continuous changes driven by technological advancements, which in turn exert pressure on vocational education to better align with the evolving demands of society and the job market (Kontio & Lundmark, 2021; Belaya, 2018; Dobricki et al., 2020; Enochsson et al., 2021; Szeberényi et al., 2022). Furthermore, these processes are significantly amplified by the digitization of society.

In vocational education, educators must consider professional curricula related to digitalization, where the ability to manage tools and materials often comes into play. The objectives of these directions are twofold: on one hand, the opportunities and skills related to ICT aim to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning processes from a pedagogical and didactic perspective; on the other hand, they cannot be detached from the digitalization of disciplinary and professional knowledge. Over the past 15 years, the Hungarian agricultural sector has fundamentally transformed and has become increasingly knowledge-intensive within the 21st-century global economy. Initiatives such as ICT4Ag (the most widespread abbreviation for ICT usage in the agricultural sector) and Farming 4.0 highlight the expanding use of cutting-edge technology, mobile phones, smart devices, sensors, and knowledge networks by agricultural businesses to improve their productivity (Benedek et al., 2023). Consequently, the changing demands of the labour market require a workforce with relevant skills – a need that agricultural education must quickly respond to. Addressing this developmental direction, one of the most comprehensive recent EU projects is titled “Teaching Agricultural Informatics Knowledge in Agricultural Vocational Education.” The project integrates the successful learning methodology of the previous Leonardo project network with additional learner-centred methods, focusing on the rethought methodology of agriculture, European strategies and initiatives for e-agriculture, and the Farming 4.0 concept (Agriteach 4.0). Furthermore, digitalizing the agricultural sector has become important at the national economic level as well. Hence, in 2019, the Hungarian government adopted Hungary’s Digital Agricultural Strategy, aiming to promote digital solutions in nine sub-sectors of the industry. These knowledge domains can be effectively integrated into vocational education.

Beyond the aforementioned points, our research gains significance due to the limited attention given domestically to the examination of digital competence among teachers specifically working in agricultural vocational education. In her comprehensive study, Eszenyiné Borbély (2018) presents research results from a study conducted among 822 general education teachers. According to her findings, 33% possessed basic, 38% intermediate, and 29% advanced skills in meeting the digital world’s expected competencies. These ratios reflected proficiency levels corresponding to the five competency areas of the DigComp framework. The participating teachers in our study, as per their own admissions, exhibited greater proficiency in this competency area. This was partly a result of the COVID-19 situation, which forced online teaching upon educators and students, compelling them to embrace digital development. Moreover, it’s plausible that these educators somewhat overestimated their capabilities, a factor we couldn’t practically examine within the scope of our research.

The research results were interpreted in various ways concerning the development of digital competence for teachers. Based on the understanding of the concept, it emerged that fundamentally, it encompasses the confident and diverse use of ICT tools during teacher preparation and throughout the educational process. According to their interpretations, this competence should go beyond basic user-level IT knowledge, such as using a computer and projector for displaying course materials. Importantly, it involves knowing how to access digital resources and being able to independently create digital content and curriculum materials. Effective application of teacher digital competence involves enabling students to develop in this area as well, helping them understand the advantages, opportunities, disadvantages, and responsible use of ICT tools, the internet, and applications. Both national and school-level documents that regulate Hungarian public education mirror this approach in both teacher and student competencies. Teachers are expected to be open to new learning theories, teaching methods, and exploring the new pedagogical applications of ICT, integrating them into their own teaching and learning processes. The 2020 National Core Curriculum places digital competence among the highlighted student competency areas. Students should be capable of managing information, communicating, and collaborating in the digital space, using devices safely and ethically, creating and manipulating digital content and algorithms, and enhancing their digital problem-solving skills (Szeberényi & Ritter, 2021). From Digital Competencies in Education.

Another perspective, the development of digital competence involves expanding existing ICT competencies and applying new methods according to the teachers’ interpretations. The third aspect highlighted by the respondents underscores the importance of the development aspect that responds to teaching experiences and needs. Often, the existing subject-specific ICT tools, platforms, applications, and software lack a pedagogical and methodological perspective.

Our research findings also supported the importance, similar to the scholarly conclusions discussed in the study, of acquainting oneself with specialized ICT tools related to the agricultural profession and adapting them for classroom use. To achieve this, they considered it essential to understand and comprehend the theoretical aspects of hardware and software solutions that aid education, as well as to acquire the skills necessary for practical implementation.

Several personal factors emerged from our research results that influence teachers’ digital proficiency, reinforcing the significance of personal factors as highlighted by previous research (Ottenbreit-Leftwich et al., 2018; Guzman & Nussbaum, 2009). It is crucial to consider how open educators are to change, their personality traits, motivation, attitude, and their willingness to engage in self-improvement. Determining factors included factors such as determination, the age of the educator, their interests, flexibility, patience, time constraints, workload, additional daily tasks beyond teaching, administrative burdens, overall mental well-being, and burnout. A common challenge is that schools might possess adequate ICT infrastructure, but there might be a lack of practical assistance, sharing of good teaching practices, opportunities for inquiries, and many educators might not have learned to use the provided tools effectively. Language barriers, such as a lack of English proficiency, might also hinder the comprehension of tools presented in the English language. For disadvantaged children, limited access to devices and the internet presents a constraint. Consequently, students and parents might be unfamiliar with digital platforms. Presently, students’ academic performance can be viewed online through the aforementioned e-KRÉTA interface.

5 Conclusion

The results of this research have drawn our attention to focal points that could definitely make the education process more effective. One very important finding of the study is that the level of ICT tooling does not necessarily influence the level of development of teachers’ digital competences. The internal drive, motivation and willingness to develop is an important catalyst, which is of course closely linked to the teacher’s personality, life path and life situation. Policy measures in 2024 have focused on wage adjustments, but it would be necessary to focus on the mental health of teachers in the context of training and focus group discussions, and to incorporate catalysing skill development and mental hygiene programmes into the continuing education system (TOR), which could provide the foundations for greater inclusion and openness for teachers who are unfamiliar with ICT tools.

In our study, we have presented the key findings of our questionnaire-based research assessing the digital competence levels of educators in agricultural vocational training. A significant portion of the teachers, as revealed in their responses to open-ended questions, claimed to use the opportunities provided by the digital world in their learning and teaching processes at an advanced or professional level. However, in our perspective, they might have slightly overestimated their proficiency, a matter that could be further investigated through additional practical-context examinations.

Based on the research results, it can be asserted that in the development of teaching competencies, particularly in the case of enhancing digital competencies, genuine self-reflection by educators is essential. It is also pivotal to consider the specific subject-related requirements when implementing ICT developments aimed at future education. Among the personal factors, gender and years spent in education exhibited a moderate correlation with the evaluation of digital competencies in teaching. The geographical location of schools did not yield significant variations in the responses within this research, despite the differing ICT infrastructure in the examined institutions. While some schools boast highly equipped facilities, others possess outdated computer hardware, insufficient internet bandwidth, or incompatible devices. Many teachers are required to transport and assemble their own equipment from one classroom to another, often at the expense of valuable teaching time. These constraints frequently lead to demotivation, especially when educators invest their leisure hours at home to create learning-supporting applications, only to find them inoperative during lessons due to inadequate internet or ICT infrastructure.

The positive impact of thematic courses and informal digital support is evident; however, the research has also shed light on several shortcomings and focal points that should be taken into consideration in future training offerings and developments. A clear demand has emerged for profession- and subject-specific workshops and courses, which would emphasize practical knowledge demonstration alongside theoretical expertise within the framework of classroom settings. The need for profession-specific online learning materials and their accessibility, as well as the creation of task banks, has been highlighted. Engagement with industry representatives and practitioners should extend beyond professional events to include participation in company-held training sessions, allowing teachers to acquire proficiency in the latest technologies. Respondents have expressed a desire for profession-specific thematic and free-of-charge workshops/courses, where they could familiarize themselves with the workings of new ICT tools and platforms, as well as their classroom applications, in relation to digital competence development. Knowledge in the field of digital curriculum processing would also be essential. These endeavours could be pursued online or integrated into school hours. While 32.9% of surveyed teachers acknowledged the presence of such training, they often focused solely on IT skills, overlooking pedagogical functions. The role of demonstration lessons has been raised, wherein the practical application of new methods could be observed in actual classroom settings. In certain schools, the need for the development of IT tools and systems has also been expressed, as training gains little significance without proper ICT infrastructure. Providing laptops, software, and ensuring Wi-Fi access in classrooms were emphasized as institutional responsibilities for educators.

Overall, it can be concluded that the positive impact of governmental digital competency development efforts and strategies is already visible within the agricultural vocational education system. This progress has been greatly influenced by the vocational training reform implemented since 2019 and the global COVID-19 pandemic.