Introduction

Scientific Background

Geointerpretation was introduced by Tomas Hose (2012) as “…The art or science of determining and then communicating the meaning or significance of a geological or geomorphological phenomenon, event or location…” (Hose 2012, 17). The term interpretation was first used by John Muir in 1871 and arose from the need for a better understanding of geological phenomena (rocks). He wrote, “I will interpret the rocks…”, understanding more than interpreting, as can be seen from the wider context of the text (Mackintosh 2013). These references show that geoheritage was the first type of heritage that was interpreted. Migoń (2018) divided interpretation techniques into four major groups: (1) permanent interpretative facilities at geosites, available at any time (interpretive panels), (2) portable tools (guidebooks, brochures, smartphone applications), (3) off-site facilities (visitors’ centres, museums, exhibitions, dedicated websites), (4) direct interactions with a guide during guided outdoor walks. Migoń (2018) considers interpretation a vital component of geotourism.

When it comes to heritage interpretation, the interpreters are always inspired by Freeman Tilden’s teaching on this art form, as he likes to call it. “Through interpretation comes understanding, through understanding comes recognition, and through recognition comes protection” is Freeman Tilden’s maxim, written in the 1950s and still relevant today (Tilden 1957). The United States National Park Service made this quote its motto and brought heritage interpretation to institutions and a broad audience. As mentioned earlier, Tilden’s understanding and thinking about heritage interpretation continues to be inspirational today, and we are guided by his principles in every task of interpretation. Beyond the acquisition of knowledge, the ultimate goal is a unique and memorable experience that connects visitors to the heritage on a deeper and more conscious level to sustain their attention and encourage them to think (Migoń 2018). The concepts of interpretation can already be found in educational guides as part of European tourist tours throughout Europe, and as the need for interpretive guidelines increases, a heritage interpretation manual has also been published (Smrekar et al. 2014; Draženović and Smrekar 2020).

Innovative geointerpretation, together with geotourism, is gaining the leading role in sustainable tourism, especially nature-based geotourism focused on experiences and learning. Protected areas and geoparks are today’s driving force of geointerpretation, in which responsible environmental management influences appropriate environmentally friendly geotourism behaviour (Bissix et al. 2009; Dowling and Newsome 2017). However, if not carefully integrated into a broader sustainable tourism strategy, geotourism can have negative impacts, since it can be part of mass tourism and its development. Negative impacts such as climbing and collecting geofeatures (rocks, fossils), entering restricted areas, creating informal trails and causing erosion already exist, for example in Yehliu Geopark in Taiwan, the World Heritage Site in England and the Campania region in Italy (Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei) (Dowling and Newsome 2017; Russo et al. 2018). It is the role of geointerpretation to support new geotourism concepts using the “power of education and knowledge”. In addition to protecting the heritage of destinations, geointerpretation can strongly contribute to increasing local economies and also enhance geoscientific knowledge (Timcak and Vizi 2010; Bujdosó et al. 2015).

Problem Identification and Objectives

In the wake of the most important trends in geointerpretation (Vasiljević et al. 2011) and geotourism (Hose 2012), landscape geointerpretation is becoming increasingly important worldwide. It is a professional discipline that provides various tools, methods and skills to promote geoheritage (Migoń 2018) in the rapidly growing geotourism industry. According to Boley et al. (2011), geotourism can play a leading role in promoting landscapes, along with innovative landscape geointerpretation. Although the profession intensively strives for equal protection of abiotic and biotic nature, too often the focus is still on protecting plant and animal species (Stepišnik and Repe 2015; Čonč 2020). In some landscapes, however, the diversity of abiotic nature (geodiversity) and geoheritage already play a leading role in geoconservation and geotourism. Such landscapes are now widely available at UNESCO Global Geoparks, with very well-established projects (Rodrigues et al. 2021). Landscapes with volcanoes (e.g. Wulanhada Volcano Geopark, Mongolia) or subterranean phenomena (e.g. Marble Arch Caves Geopark, England) are expectedly more diverse and thus more interesting to the general tourist than extensive, intensively farmed flat plains (e.g. Po River Valley, Italy).

In this study, we focused on one of the most interesting, mysterious and vulnerable landscapes in the world, the karst landscape. Karst landscapes comprise one-fifth of the Earth’s land area and one-third of Europe (Ford and Williams 2007). The karst landscape is one of the most typical and well-known, due to its particular surface and underground, as well as natural and cultural features and phenomena (Cvijić 1918; Herak 1970; Božičević 1992; Matas 2009; Mihevc et al. 2016).

The north-western Dinaric Karst borders Slovenia and Croatia, known for its numerous karst phenomena. Nearly half of Slovenia (Gams 2004) and slightly more than half of Croatia (Matas 2009) are karstic. The rich geoheritage offers many unexploited potentials for the development of sustainable outdoor and active geotourism, as well as speleotourism (Tičar et al. 2018; Tomić et al. 2019). There is additionally a need for improved geoconservation in the Dinaric Karst landscape at the transboundary level between Slovenia and Croatia, as well as in the entire region. Despite the increasingly comprehensive treatment of nature and culture conservation in southeastern Europe, there is a distinct lack of high-quality and attractive interpretive material. Until recently, the concept of interpretation was rarely used, and it is still not widely established in this region. Accordingly, modern karst landscape management must be focused on the protection of the karst and cave ecosystems, finding ways to achieve at the same time an economic development of local communities. It requires applying values of geoethics (Peppoloni et al. 2019) that can significantly influence the responsible management of karst geosites and their protection (Antić et al. 2020). Geoethics deals with the ethical, social and cultural implications of geoscience knowledge, education, research, practice and communication, and with the social role and responsibility of geoscientists in conducting their activities (Peppoloni and Di Capua 2012). Through geoethical approach, it should be demonstrated that geological and geographical knowledge is really a benefit to humankind, and that their contribution can be decisive in searching for a new equilibrium in the relationships between man and nature (Peppoloni and Di Capua 2012) by using geointerpretation and geoeducation.

Our overall goal is to increase general awareness and knowledge of the importance, vulnerability and tourist attractiveness of karst landscape through sound of geointerpretation. The transboundary approach of geointerpretation aims to link different types of karst landscapes through representative karst interpretive centres, outdoor interpretive polygons and numerous outdoor geosites to promote the unique but diverse geoheritage. The main objectives were to identify representative but diverse karst areas to serve as pilot sites for interpretive infrastructure (centres, polygons), the main karst type geoheritage to be interpreted and a model for transboundary connections and interactions between different karst types to promote sustainable geotourism.

Study Area

The Dinaric Karst covers most of the Dinaric Mountains and the Adriatic Islands. The rich geological diversity is based on various karst features (caves, huge collapse dolines, canyons, dolines, karst springs, geothermal karst springs, large sinking streams, intermittent lakes, etc.), which are distributed over the whole landscape and differ in their geological characteristics. The well-developed karst phenomena of the Dinaric Karst led to early descriptions and karstological studies (Mihevc et al. 2010). There are various classifications of karst landscapes that take into account different criteria, such as tecto-genetic (orogenic, epi-orogenic), climatic zones (arctic, periglacial, Mediterranean, temperate, tropical, arid), groundwater level (deep, shallow), location (alpine, dinaric, isolated, contact, coastal, extraterrestrial, etc.), type of cover (covered, bare, buried, fossil, dammed, etc.) and elevation (low plateaus, plateaus, coastal) (Roglić 1969; Herak 1970; Gams 1995, 2004; Ford and Williams 2007; Mihevc et al. 2010; Veres 2020). For the study, we used the latter in combination with geography, since both are the most general geographic classifications that can be easily applied to other landscape types.

The area studied (Fig. 1) extends primarily over water-permeable carbonate bedrocks, but also includes some areas of impermeable rocks, such as the flysch Brkini Hills, where the catchments of the sinking rivers of the contact karst are located. The area extends from low karst plateau (Karst Plateau) to a contact karst area (UNESCO site Škocjan Caves) in Slovenia and crosses the Slovenian-Croatian border in the high karst plateaus of Snežnik and Gorski Kotar and drops to the Croatian Adriatic coast of the karstified Kvarner archipelago (islands of Krk, Cres, Lošinj, Rab).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Locations of four representative pilot study areas

Full size image

The low karst plateau is raised and the surface of the corrosion planes is slightly levelled. An example of this is the Karst Plateau, a plateau in the NW part of the Dinaric Karst in Slovenia and Italy, along Trieste Bay, and is used as the first case study karst area. Additionally, in Croatia larger levelled areas are often referred to as “zaravan”. A levelled area forms the largest part of Istria. It is gently sloping and is crossed by large dry valleys, some gorges and numerous dolines (Mihevc et al. 2010). Basic and typical features are solution dolines, collapse dolines and caves.

Contact karst is derived from one of the possible classifications of karst (Mihevc et al. 2010) and is classified on the basis of the predominant morphological process. Karst formed by the influence of a surface flow could be referred to by the term contact karst. The term is commonly used in Slovenia and Croatia, where karst comes into contact with noncarbonate rocks (mostly flysch of Eocene age) and specific relief forms and phenomena have developed (Mihevc et al. 2010). Basic and typical features are ponors, ponor caves, blind valleys and huge collapse dolines (e.g. Škocjan caves). The second case study area is the contact karst of the UNESCO Škocjan Caves, located on the southeastern edge of Karst Plateau, in geological contact with the Flysch Brkini Hills.

The high karst plateaus of the Dinaric Mountains are located between 900 and 1400 m above sea level and receive large amounts of precipitation (2000–3000 mm), but there is no surface runoff. From the hydrogeological point of view, the occurrence of estavela is significant (Herak et al. 1969). The highest areas of the high karst plateaus (Snežnik in Slovenia, Snježnik in Croatia) were modified by glaciation in the Quaternary, and the recent landscape is called glaciokarst (Žebre and Stepišnik 2016). Karst phenomena such as deep vertical cave systems, huge dolines, collapse dolines, conical hills and deep abysses are typical (Mihevc et al. 2016). The representative area for geointerpretation is Gorski Kotar Mountain (Croatia) which rises to 2000 m above the Kvarner Bay (Adriatic Sea).

The coastal karst area is hydrogeologically characterised mainly by the existence of a considerable number of permanent or periodic freshwater, and saline or brackish water springs on the coast, as well as underwater springs (vruljas) and estavelas (Herak et al. 1969). Due to the porosity and fracturing of the terrain, the influence of the sea can reach deep inland. In Croatia, the coastal karst belt includes the Istrian peninsula, the Adriatic islands and the coastal area of Dalmatia (Herak et al. 1969). In Slovenia, coastal karst occurs only locally in the Izola (Isola) urban area. The cavities may be open or be transformed by abrasion. Karstification takes place on abrasion platforms and cliffs. There is a special type of coastal karren, in the formation of which organisms are involved (bio-corrosion). The representative area for geointerpretation is Krk Island, the most northern and one of the biggest Adriatic islands.

Methods

Interpretive Planning Process

Every heritage interpretation should be preceded by a planning process, and the result of that process is a study we call an interpretive plan. In this chapter and sub-sections, we provide a definition of interpretive planning, present different types of interpretive plans, briefly describe the steps in their development and list the objectives to be met by our interpretive plans.

Interpretive planning is a process of creating interpretive plans and is highly individualised (Veverka 2011; Brochu 2003; Wells et al. 2013; Colbert and Morrissey 2017). It can be defined as a decision-making process that combines management needs and user preferences to determine the most effective way of conveying a message to a target audience about a particular heritage phenomenon. The interpretive plan systematically presents the entire interpretation process. Since knowledge and needs change over time, an interpretation plan should be flexible, precise and not too detailed so that it can be used by everyone involved in its implementation. Nothing in it should be strictly defined—it grows and is complemented by the realisation of each of its stages in the implementation process. Interpretive plans are decision support tools for municipalities, communities and natural and cultural heritage institutions in developing compelling and understandable visitor experiences (Colbert and Morrissey 2017). The outcome of an interpretive plan is influenced by the following factors: constraints of place and space, state of research on heritage phenomena, financial considerations, institutional values and client expectations, as well as the timeframe for project development or deadline for documentation execution.

Within the study, two types of interpretive planning documentation were produced: (1) one interpretive master plan for the studied transboundary karst landscape and (2) four permanent exhibition interpretive plans (one for each karst type).

The Interpretive Master Plan Process

The interpretive master plan phase identified exhibition stakeholders and audiences, outlined key goals, established an interpretive hierarchy and created a roadmap for launching new exhibitions and common themes of landscape interpretation. The master plan is a strategic plan that considers characteristics of all four types. The interpretive master plan is the basis for the development of all other concepts and elaborated documents for the development of individual interpretive infrastructure and programmes within the four karst localities. We bring the strategic context of its development and its general and specific goals and named it also interpretive strategic plan. In the study, an interpretive master plan was developed for the overall goal of the project, which includes four geoheritage sites with their specific karst features. For the transboundary study areas and all four karst types, three common themes considering karst geoheritage are highlighted by the interpretation: the duality, the geodiversity, and the geohistory of karst explorations.

Karst landscape duality is characterised by multiple surface and underground features (Mihevc et al. 2016), which is also reflected in the duality of geosites. Dolines are “the most common, typical, representative landform of karst landscapes” (Sauro 2003, 43; Ford and Williams 2007) that occur in all four karst types and are an expression of very high landscape geodiversity. On the other hand, caves, being one of the most remote and least explored environments on Earth, are also important karst phenomena in all four areas. Caves are one of the oldest tourist attractions and nowadays also one of the most popular geotourism destinations in the world. In the Dinaric Karst area, some of the biggest and largest cave systems have been discovered in Slovenia (e.g. the Postojna Cave System 24,120 m) (Tičar et al. 2018) and in Croatia (e.g. the Crnopac Cave System (54.709 m) (Barišić 2021). This uniqueness and duality of the karst landscape are also directly or indirectly represented by the content of all four interpretive centres (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Karst landscape geointerpretation from perspective of landscape duality, representing hydrological connectivity between surface (doline) and underground (cave). (author of graphics: Jana Pečečnik)

Full size image

In addition to the abundance of various karst phenomena, karst geodiversity is best expressed by natural karst features versus man-reshaped features. Dolines are understood as diagnostic karst landforms and have been the subject of various natural and cultural scientific studies for decades (e.g. Herak et al. 1969; Roglić 1969; Božičević 1992; Sauro 2003; Ford and Williams 2007; Matas 2009; Marković et al. 2016; Breg Valjavec et al. 2018; Veres 2020). One of the most interesting types of dolines are cultivated dolines, which are an excellent object for geointerpretation (Fig. 3). They reflect the complex intertwining of natural and cultural processes (rural architecture, stone walls, etc.) and give us an insight into the structure of past and present processes taking place in the landscape. In addition, caves were the first dwellings of prehistoric humans and many of them are either exploited or unexploited archives of past eras. Animal and human remains have been discovered in caves, as well as various artefacts from past millennia.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Karst landscape geointerpretation representing geodiversity of dolines. A Natural doline. B Cultivated doline. C Doline used as a pond. D Abandoned cultivated doline overgrown by forest. (author of graphics: Jana Pečečnik)

Full size image

Geohistory of explorations in the Dinaric Karst should include all studies, evaluations and applications of geological and geomorphological discoveries and research of study areas or phenomena (Hose 2012). All historical papers, articles, maps, photographs and other materials are a very important basis for geointerpretation (museums), geotourism and geoconservation (Hose 2012). The term karst spread rapidly worldwide in the nineteenth century due to speleological, geomorphological and geological explorations. Through Valvasor’s (1689) and others’ (Gorjanović-Kramberger 1881) early descriptions of karst phenomena, Slavic words such as dolina, polje, vrulja and kamenica became international geomorphological terms. The rich karst terminology, closely connected with the Dinaric Mountains and the South Slavic languages, provides us with a historical background for landscape interpretation, and some karst terms could be used for tourist labelling of karst destinations. Nowadays, karst is a common research topic in various scientific fields, such as geology, geography, speleology, hydrology, biology, geomorphology, anthropology and archaeology (Mihevc et al. 2016).

Interpretation of major themes is further accompanied by leading interpretation themes that are unique to each karst type area and are included in interpretive plans for permanent exhibitions.

The Interpretive Process for Permanent Exhibitions

The interpretive plan for a permanent exhibition includes the content specifications that provide an overview of the exhibition and its main messages and identify potential themes, subthemes and interpretive tools, such as interactive and media elements. They should also define the organisation, outcomes and indicators of success. The most appropriate interpretive tools should be specified, taking into account the content, and sometimes the final interpretive text, aesthetics and graphic elements are already included, as well as recommendations for education and evaluation (Colbert and Morrissey 2017).

Interpretive plans for four permanent exhibits were developed. The local community is the starting point and its well-being is the goal. The interpretive plans for this study were created by combining different methods found in the main professional references better to extract the core of the karst heritage, but mostly we followed Tilden’s (1957) principles of interpretation (see Table 1). In the process, interpretive plans were created with special attention to the protection and enhancement of the natural heritage so that every visitor is aware of his relationship with nature and his impact on the environment that surrounds him.

Interpretive planning included site work, collaboration with the local community and the development of an interpretive plan focused on creating a permanent exhibition. The on-site work included a heritage visit and a guided tour in which all the important features of the site were presented by experts. The first contact with the site is crucial because it allows us to experience the place we are visiting from a visitor’s perspective for the first time. This gives us a glimpse of everything the visitor sees when they arrive at the site, what visual impression they gain, what they find fascinating and what they may want to explore further.

Any interpretive planning for a permanent exhibition requires the involvement of experts in the fields thematically covered by the exhibition itself. Geologists, geographers, speleologists, biologists and others were involved throughout the planning process. After on-site research, we organised a workshop with local stakeholders. The workshop was attended by key stakeholders for each site, such as experts in geology, geography, biology, history, designers and architects, teachers and professors, tourism stakeholders and local government staff involved in the project. Divided into smaller groups, they mapped the geoheritage potential of the site and identified important issues related to the phenomenon. This part of the group work is extremely important because it allows local stakeholders to be involved in the project from the beginning, and their knowledge and skills contribute to a holistic view of each issue.

Further work, based on the previous steps, brought the selection of the main thematic units, linked by the main message of the permanent exhibition. Thus, in Škocjan Caves Park, at the point of contact with the Karst, the visitor learns how the river Reka has shaped the landscape above and below the Earth’s surface for thousands of years, and in Punat on the island of Krk, in the authentic space of an old olive mill, the visitor discovers how man has shaped the landscape of the coastal karst and lived off the earthly bounty. For each thematic unit, the media that best convey the message to the visitor, interest him, sensitise him and give him new knowledge about the world in which he lives are determined. Interpretive media are the basic tools for interpreting cultural heritage and conveying unique messages to users, engaging the senses and creating a unique experience.

Considerations about the potential of the heritage phenomenon include careful definition of the target audience, potential partners and networking opportunities, and awareness of the nature of the market. Additional data include who is visiting or expected to visit the museum and why, barriers to visitor or potential audience engagement, understanding the perspectives and expectations of the museum community and stakeholders, and formative and corrective assessment of potential interpretive experiences. All of the information provided is critical for further development of the draft interpretive plan, which, once agreed with key stakeholders, will be adopted as the final version of the most effective way to communicate the powerful message of the Karst heritage story.

The Outcomes of Geointerpretation

Karst Interpretive Centres and Polygons (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4
figure 4

The transboundary interpretive infrastructure is presented by a network of interpretive centres, polygons and geosites. The map on the left visualises the distribution of interpretive centres in the karst landscape (Slovenia in dark blue, Croatia in light blue) and on the right-hand image is a theoretical scheme of interpretive infrastructure

Full size image

As a final planning result, four interpretive plans for indoor and outdoor interpretive infrastructure were developed. Indoor infrastructure refers to all structures that use the medium of permanent exhibitions and indoor interpretive media. The most common interpretive infrastructures for outdoor visitors are thematic trails with interpretive panels, as places that connect individual segments of a heritage site by creating a network that provides more opportunities to experience the heritage site. Markers and signs are used to inform, guide, regulate and warn users and are part of the interpretive and guidance system.

Four interpretive plans for permanent exhibitions were provided for interpretive centres of low, high, contact and coastal karst and one polygon associated with each type. The role of the individual karst interpretive centre is to act as an educational and geotourism hub, to promote and support local products, local crafts (olive production, stonemasonry, lime and coal production), traditional culinary specialities, vernacular architecture (stone buildings, stone walls), folklore and traditions based on the karst natural resources, and intangible heritage (myths, indigenous religions).

Interpretive plans for interpretive polygons were added as an additional interpretive zone to the interpretive plan for the indoor interpretive centre. The indoor and outdoor interpretations were thematically linked to the same karst type. All four interpretive centres are located in old traditional buildings, representing important cultural heritage. Polygons are located in a representative karst environment by which the story about the local karst landscape can be best presented on-site and experienced by visitors. The interpretive plans consist of elaboration of the main interpretive messages, interpretive goals, equipment and interpretive media elaborated by the zones of the centre. Indoor interpretive infrastructure refers to all structures that use the medium of the permanent exhibition and interpretive media indoors. The interpretive plan provides organisational structure, based on the available architecture of the building. The first is the zone for visitors’ reception. Its purpose is to provide visitors with general information on the interpretive centre. This zone is followed by the zone of the permanent exhibition and mostly also by a multifunctional zone for education, workshops and lectures.

Each of the four interpretive centres has its own managing institution, which will provide upgradings of existing plans in the future and cooperation between all four sites of geointerpretation. Low karst interpretive infrastructure is managed by a private company that is responsible for the Sežana Botanical Garden, contact karst is managed by the public institution Regional Park Škocjan Caves, high karst is managed by the Natural History Museum of Rijeka and the coastal karst interpretive centre and polygon are managed by the Tourism Office of the Municipality of the City of Punat.

Low Karst of the Karst Plateau (Slovenia)

The wider low karst region coincides with the area known as the classic, native karst, called Karst Plateau, from where the global name “karst” (the German name for Karst Plateau is Karst, also Carso in Italian) derives. The low karst interpretive centre is located in the broader area of Sežana Botanical Garden, an existing and protected landscape monument, built by the Scaramangà family in 1848.

To upgrade the presentation of non-native plant species in the botanical garden, the interpretive centre is dedicated to native vegetation, which is dominated by biodiversity-rich dry karst grasslands, oak forests and bushlands. It is called the “Interpretive Centre of Karst Vegetation”. The leading interpretation theme is the biotic diversity of native karst vegetation through time and space, as one of the most important elements in the formation of the karst cultural landscape and its attachment to rocky limestone landscape, karst phenomena (dolines, caves) and lack of natural resources (water, soil). A multimedia presentation provides the natural history of Karst Plateau, from the end of the last Ice Age, starting 10,000 years ago, until today.

The low karst interpretive polygon is located nearby and is dedicated to enclosed karst depressions. Sinkholes or dolines, as the locals and most karstology scientists call them, are the most common karst depressions, up to 100-m wide and up to 10-m deep. Although many look similar, their present landform is the result of various processes taking place underground and on the surface. They are most common on Karst Plateau, where there are about 14,000 of them and in some places up to 200/km2. Five types of dolines can be admired on-site and are presented in detail on interpretive panels: natural dolines, cultivated dolines, doline ponds and dolines that are genetically formed from unroofed caves.

High Karst of Gorski Kotar (Croatia)

The main message of the High Karst Interpretive Centre is the wilderness of high karst plateaus (biotic and abiotic) and the adaption of humans to extreme living conditions. The exhibition aims to provide the visitor with an intellectual and instinctive understanding of the complexity of the connections between living beings, the peculiarities and characteristics of the biological diversity in Gorski Kotar and the deep connection between man and nature in this area, and to awaken feelings of significance.

The exhibition covers the geoheritage of the high karst plateau, taking into account geomorphology (especially glacial forms), climatology, biodiversity and its protection, and the connection between natural and cultural heritage. It is called “Wilderness with a sea-view”. Complex interactive exhibits include a climbing rock; a karst water flow that shows the complexity of the karst bedrock and karst water flow; a geological column that depicts and interprets the formation of the high mountain karst area during the 320 million years of the geological past; a video installation that allows visitors to experience the wilderness and dynamics of surface karst forms; a cross-section of a glacial moraine describing the phenomenon of glaciokarst; and medicinal plants of high mountain karst.

The kilometre-long circular high karst interpretive polygon leads through a piece of the wilderness of the Liburnian karst, which stretches from Mount Snežnik in Slovenia to northern Velebit on the Kvarner islands. Interesting facts about the Dinaric beech and fir forests, high karst features, colourful meadows, glaciers that have changed the surrounding landscape, a field that was once a lake and the extinct and living carnivores of this area are explained through eight educational pyramids.

Contact Karst of UNESCO Škocjan Caves (Slovenia)

The main message of the Contact Karst Interpretive Centre refers to the unique natural phenomenon of the Reka River, which flows 55 km on the impermeable Eocene flysch surface and sinks underground when it reaches the karst, which is characterised by limestone rocks. This river is the artist that creates and transforms the Škocjan caves, a natural phenomenon of contact karst on a global scale.

The exhibition covers the geological, hydrological, archaeological and geomorphological heritage. The main focus is on the differences between permeable carbonate rocks (limestone, dolostone) and non-permeable Eocene flysch. At the contact of the two rocks, the Reka River sinks into Škocjan Caves by shaping huge ponors and collapse dolines on the surface and an underground canyon, cave galleries and speleothems.

The interpretive centre is the starting point for visiting the contact karst on-site interpretive polygon, which will sustainably guide visitors to nearby hotspots (huge collapse dolines, water wells, dry karst grasslands) along designated trails on the karst surface.

Coastal Karst on Krk Island (Croatia)

The main message of the Coastal Karst Interpretive Centre is olive growing. It is located in Punat on the island of Krk and is locally known as “Stari toš” (old olive mill).

The exhibition covers the geological, pedological and climatic conditions of the coastal karst on the island of Krk with contents that represent the cultural heritage in connection with the natural conditions in the coastal karst landscape, where olive growing is one of the most important traditional agricultural sectors. The representation of olive growing as it was practised in the past and its connection with the karst landscape and the connection with the coastal karst type is the central theme of this centre.

The interpretive polygon is located amongst olive groves, where the main elements of the karst geoheritage are massive and extensive drystone walls, locally called “gromače”. In addition, natural geological and climatic conditions can best be experienced by visiting the on-site interpretive polygon. The landscape geointerpretation (geology of Krk Island, climate changes …) is presented with interpretive panels.

Karst geointerpretation is intertwined with Tilden’s principles. Tilden (1957) described heritage interpretation as an “educational activity, which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by first-hand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information” (Tilden 1957). Tilden’s basic principles for heritage interpretation are six and have all been included in karst geoheritage interpretation at the level of interpretation of each karst type (low karst, high karst, contact karst, coastal karst). In Table 1, we present the interpretive centre concerning the application of Tilden’s six principles.

Table 1 Tilden’s six principles of interpretation are intertwined through four off-site permanent exhibitions (in interpretive centres) and four on-site interpretive polygons
Full size table

In each interpretive centre, special attention is also given to three main strategic themes to be interpreted concerning the karst geoheritage:

  • Karst landscape duality: surface and underground, is presented in each interpretive centre (geological and geomorphological karst features (dolines, collapse dolines, karren) and processes (dissolution of carbonate rocks, collapse dolines creation, deforestation)).

  • Karst geodiversity (concerning biodiversity and cultural diversity): cultivated dolines and drystone walls, vernacular architecture (herdsmen’ houses made of limestone)

  • Karst geohistory of explorations: one of the main scientists to have explored the Karst Plateau native vegetation was Muzio Tommasini. His presentation is included in the content of the permanent exhibition of low karst.

Discussion

Sustainability and Karst Labelling

A sound knowledge of geodiversity and geoheritage for sustainable tourism development, in addition to sustainable (geo)tourism development, the geoconservation, protection and continuous sustainability are the goal of karst geoheritage management (Antić et al. 2020) and have been applied through transboundary approach of landscape geointerpretation. Fragile karst landscapes have very low resilience and are exposed to technological development, economic and population growth, and social changes leading to land degradation (Breg Valjavec et al. 2018). Sustainable forms of (geo)tourism are the only acceptable form of tourism and in this study we referred to such touristic activities that minimise negative impacts on the environment, and have positive repercussions on social communities, local economy and management of natural sites and resources (Antić et al. 2020). A web-based GIS, an educational and promotional platform called Smart-Karst (smartkarst.eu), was established. It summarises the karst heritage and connects all four interpretive centres and polygons. It enables outdoor visitors to discover interesting cycling and hiking trails along interesting karst geosites.

The transboundary approach of landscape geointerpretation follows the sustainability concept. Sustainability has acquired recognition as a “brand” for sound dealings in the human niche, whilst the geoethics labels thinking situated at the intersection of sustainability ethics, environmental ethics and the ethics of societal practices of citizens (Bohle and Marone 2021). Accordingly, a sustainable transboundary karst destination was designed and is presented virtually on Smart-Karst platform, named KRASn’KRŠ by using regional and local karst terminology for labelling and branding of destination. KRASn’KRŠ can be translated in English as KARSTn’KARST, where “KRAS” is the Slovene and “KRŠ” is the Croatian (also Serb) word for rocky karst landscape. The term krasen (in Slovene, shortened to krasn’ in colloquial language) means beautiful and gorgeous, and is interpreted as “KRASn” to represent beautiful and rich karst heritage. It highlights four karst localities, although it is open to other karst landscapes throughout Europe that can be gradually included.

The presented transboundary approach can be transferred and extended to other countries with karst landscapes (e.g. the Dinaric Mountains in Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, Serbia, Albania, or other karst areas, e.g. Apulia in Italy, the Greek Islands, Aggtelek, Bükk or Mecsek in Hungary, Causses in France, Yorkshire Dales in the UK, Akiyoshidai in Japan). In these regions, many cultural and natural karst features are still unrecognised and not valorised, although they represent an important resource for the development of sustainable karst geotourism and safe shelters for the conservation of abiotic and biotic nature as well as karst cultural heritage. In the pilot phase, the platform is limited to the transboundary area of Slovenia and Croatia (from the Karst Plateau to the Kvarner archipelago) but the idea exists to extend the network of karst centres along Dinaric Mountains and further in other karst landscapes in Europe (entire Dinaric Mountains) and Asia (e.g. China, Japan). Following the presented methodology and transboundary approach, new karst interpretive centres (karst museums) can be established in different karst landscape types, dedicated to karst heritage and connected through a common idea (e.g. karst protection). A concept of karst interpretive centres can be compared with Messner Mountain Museum—a network of museums located in six extraordinary places in South Tyrol and Belluno and dedicated to the mountains and the mountain culture in the Alps.

Karst Geoparks

The fundamental supporting role of geoconservation is to keep the vital site resources available that our community needs for future research, education and training (Hose 2012).

There is a need for improved geoconservation in the transboundary karst landscape between Slovenia and Croatia as well as in the entire southeastern Europe. In the future, geoheritage interpretation needs to be further developed, refined and incorporated into geoconservation (geoparks, protected areas; Natura 2000), in both theory and practice and also as a response and added value to the biocentric approach to conservation. Geoparks are important aspect regarding the management and protection of geological heritage, since conservation measures are established on an international level. Geoparks are defined as “single, unified geographical areas where sites and landscapes of international geological significance are managed with a holistic concept of protection, education, and sustainable development” (UNESCO 2017). The main objectives of geoparks are conservation, education and sustainable development through geotourism with a bottom-up approach that involves local communities (UNESCO 2017).

Current hotspots of geointerpretation in Slovenia and Croatia are protected areas and also a part of UNESCO geoparks. In Slovenia, the inscription of the Škocjan Caves on the UNESCO list and the establishment of Idrija Geopark in 2010 and the Karavanke Geopark in 2013 contributed to the recognition, preservation and protection of geodiversity and the development of high-quality geointerpretation. In Croatia, two UNESCO Geoparks have been established, Papuk and Vis Archipelago (UNESCO 2017). The Biokovo-Imotski Lakes Geopark project is on track to receive the UNESCO Global Geopark label, as is the Karst Plateau in Slovenia, which is in the initial stages of the application process. Both candidates are rich in karst heritage and part of the Dinaric Karst. The high-quality interpretation that develops in these areas encourages environmentally friendly behaviour (Bissix et al. 2009; Dowling and Newsome 2017). The presented transboundary approach of karst landscape geointerpretation and the constructed interpretive infrastructure provide a good basis for further geoconservation projects, as well as for geopark designation.

Conclusion

Natural borders of individual landscape types rarely coincide with political borders and landscapes are in general split amongst several countries, therefore a transboundary approach to geointerpretation and geoconservation is necessary. By educating people and visitors through geointerpretation, we can consequently and in a relatively short time contribute a lot to a broader awareness of the conservation of karst landscapes. Geointerpretation in interpretive centres focuses on people (geotourists, outdoor tourists, local people, scientists, students), thus continuously creating favourable relationships with the geoheritage with off-site and on-site geointerpretations. In the future, geoheritage interpretation needs to be further developed, refined and incorporated into geoconservation (geoparks, protected areas; Natura 2000), in both theory and practice and also as a response and added value to the biocentric approach to conservation. Not only in karst landscapes, but in all landscape types, the geodiversity of abiotic nature is strongly correlated with biotic nature; therefore, to understand the geoheritage, the geointerpretation needs often to incorporate the relevant aspects of biotic nature.