Introduction and literature review

Teacher shortages in Australia are acknowledged as a key area of concern (Teacher Education Expert Panel, 2023) and attracting and retaining Initial Teacher Education (ITE) students is a priority to ensure the continuation of the teaching profession. Professional experience placements have been identified as one of the main influences on ITE graduates’ experience (Fischetti et al., 2022). ITE traditional professional experience placements build on Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory whereby ITE students are mentored within a classroom context by an experienced teacher. Emerging research from Ledger et al. (2019) and Fischetti et al. (2022) cautions that the traditional placement preparation methods are outdated because they offer a theoretical preparation, rather than a holistic preparation. Therefore, it is imperative to identify how professional experience opportunities can be improved for ITE students (Parliament of New South Wales, 2023; Teacher Education Expert Panel, 2023).

Historically, simulation has been developed and utilised for training since the late 1800s including early flight simulators, medical simulations, and defence force training (Badiee & Kouffman, 2015). Simulation might be preferred to practicum opportunities in cases where there are potential financial ramifications, or concern for the well-being of participants and volunteers. Currently, ITE programs predominantly offer traditional professional experience opportunities. However, emerging simulation opportunities have been adopted by some ITE providers to supplement traditional placement opportunities. ITE simulated professional experience opportunities are defined as immersive learning scenarios that replicate the classroom environment (Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Ledger et al., 2022; Walters et al., 2021).

Within the ITE context, simulation has been explored since the 2000s (Theelen et al., 2019). In 2017, Murdoch University opened the first SimLab in Australia (Murdoch University, 2017). SimLab is a learning space to facilitate simulated professional experience opportunities. Ledger et al. (2019) identified that simulated professional learning opportunities are pivotal to both enhancing and allowing ITE students to make the most of their professional experience opportunities. Given there is currently a teacher shortage and high teacher attrition rates, ITE providers are well-placed to explore authentic experiences that might help to reduce the workload burden on the teaching profession. To date, there has been no scoping of the field of simulation in ITE. The research question that shaped this project is: what is known about simulation technologies and their application to initial teacher education programs?

Method

To determine what is known about simulation technologies, and their application to ITE programs, a scoping review methodology was selected as the most appropriate means to examine the available evidence of simulated professional experience opportunities (Peters et al., 2015). A scoping review, which has underpinnings in post-positivism, enables a systematic, thorough search of the literature (Lincoln et al., 2013); however, the absence of any claim of exhaustiveness is central to a scoping review.

Arksey and O’Malley (2005) recommend a five-stage framework method to conduct a scoping review. The first step is the identification of a research question (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005), to determine what is known about simulation technologies, and their application to ITE programs. Identifying, studying, and analysing the appropriate studies are the next three steps of the five-stage framework (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). The final stage of the five-stage framework is the reporting of the results (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005).

Search strategy

The search strings were developed and trialled between January 20 and March 31, 2023. Initially, the search string was selected as the most appropriate however upon the abstract screening stage, the researchers noted that the search did not yield any articles published from Murdoch University’s (2017) SimLab project. The search was refined in consultation with the Faculty Academic Senior Librarian, which led to reverse-citation searching of articles published on the topic of ITE SimLab. During this process, it became apparent that the terms simulation and virtual have different understandings in various fields and were returning results in which simulation and virtual were defined as in-class rehearsal, mobile devices, online learning, and medical case studies. To overcome this, the Boolean search strings were edited to exclude medical articles and the inclusion criteria were modified to include articles in the ITE context.

Twenty-one Boolean search strings were entered into the EBSCOhost, ERIC, Taylor and Francis, and ProQuest databases. The search terms used were simulat* AND (educat* OR teach*) AND (practicum OR “professional experience” OR “workplace learning” OR “work integrated learning”) NOT (nursing OR paramedic* OR medic*). The search string was also entered into Google Scholar to screen for further articles to be included in the abstract screening process. The first 20 titles of each string search were screened to determine if the search results were relevant to the search theme. A date limiter of the last 10 years was applied to avoid technology that may be obsolete.

Screening process

Following Arksey and O’Malley (2005), the researchers developed the inclusion and exclusion criteria (see Table 1) to guide the refinement of the search results. Based on procedures established in other published scoping reviews (e.g. Tricco et al., 2016) the publication language, publication date, context, and sample characteristics were selected as the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Articles reporting on research conducted earlier than 10 years ago were not considered due to the developing rate of technological advancements. Although digital technology has been used in other disciplines for a significant amount of time, simulation became a major focus in Initial Teacher Education (ITE) in the mid-2000s (Theelen et al., 2019). Further, with simulation technologies such as the Occulus Rift Frame introduced in 2014, the last 10 years has had significant growth in the range of simulation technologies available. The research team decided to focus on empirical research between 2013 and 2023 in an attempt to capture the most specialised and systemic uses of simulation technology in ITE as a means to differentiate between the earlier more exploratory and pilot programs of simulations. This filtered out studies that were either exploring the potential of general technologies or were otherwise not specifically designed for the needs and objectives of ITE. Participant groups that did not include tertiary students were excluded.

Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
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Following Arksey and O’Malley (2005), the screening process included a title, abstract and keyword screening to determine if a study should be included. Any abstracts or titles that were not clear proceeded to the full-text screening phase for screening.

Study retrieval

The initial search strategy retrieved a large number of studies (n = 2168). After the title and abstract screening, there were 32 articles for screening at the full-text stage. Interrater reliability was achieved through a collaborative, consensus approach to coding and analysis. The collaborative screening and coding approach, enacted by meetings between two researchers and independently scrutinised by another researcher, yielded a consensus view that is well beyond the 80% agreement threshold typically deemed acceptable in qualitative research (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In the full-text screening phase, a further 16 articles were eliminated, mostly due to the focus participants not meeting the inclusion criteria, or the research adopted a definition of simulation that did not meet the research team’s definition of simulation. Since 2014, there have been conceptual advancements in the literature concerning technology as a learning tool, in particular, the Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR) model, which was used to guide our definition of simulation in the ITE context (Romrell et al., 2014). Sixteen articles were included in the study for data extraction. Figure 1 depicts the search and screening processes and results in a PRISMA flowchart (Haddaway et al., 2022).

Fig. 1
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Prisma flow chart

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Data extraction and synthesis

The included studies were charted following Arksey and O’Malley’s (2005) method, which involved identifying, synthesising, and contrasting key themes from the included studies (see also Peters et al., 2015). There were two methods of extraction, a quantitative approach that aimed to classify each study according to set criteria and a qualitative method of narrative analysis. The narrative review approach was determined to be a suitable approach to report on the subsume theoretical standings identified within the studies (Peters et al., 2015).

For the quantitative component, a Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet was used to extract the following for each article: publication date, research methods, theoretical approaches, type of simulation, simulation duration, information about the participant groups, country of study and university type. To classify types of simulation the research team adopted Huang et al.’s (2021) three categories of simulation technologies: non-immersive Virtual Reality (VR), semi-immersive VR and fully immersive VR. Non-immersive VR technologies can be accessed via a handheld device (Huang et al., 2021). Semi-immersive VR technologies are wall-mounted and incorporate the use of a webcam, microphone, and motion sensor (Huang et al., 2021). Fully immersive technologies create an immersive augmented reality through VR headsets (Huang et al., 2021). Where the studies did not clearly identify the study duration or information about the participant groups or other categories, they were marked as ‘not identified’. Following the extraction stage, the descriptive statistics were populated.

In addition to extracting statistical information, Pawson (2002) commends synthesising scoping review data through a descriptive-analytical narrative review approach. For the narrative analysis, each study was read in full over a 2-week period, noting the prevalent arguments and findings. The first author documented the research question and aim, rationale for simulation, reported findings and reported contraindications in an Excel spreadsheet. Subsequently, the research team discussed the findings which were grouped thematically according to the key topics. The following themes were identified: the rationale for using simulation, academic and ITE student responses to different types of VR technologies, and the impact of simulation on ITE student teaching skills and pedagogies. The literature was read a second time over a subsequent 2-week period to document the studies’ contribution to the themes.

Results

The results of the scoping review are presented in the next two sections. First, the descriptive statistics are presented including data on the type of simulation, participants demographics, simulation duration, year of publication, university type, and country of study. Second, the narrative review highlights the rationale for simulation, responses to different types of VR technologies, and the impact of simulation on ITE student teaching skills and pedagogies.

Overview of the field (descriptive statistics)

Across the 16 articles, the majority adopted semi-immersive Virtual Reality (VR) software (n = 10) for example, Mursion software (see Table 2), followed by non-immersive VR software (n = 5) such as SimSchool, and fully immersive software (n = 1) for example, VR classroom with a headset. One study implemented two types of non-immersive VR software (n = 1).

Table 2 Simulation program
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Participant numbers ranged from four students through to 376. Predominantly, most studies had fewer than 30 participants (62.5%), three studies had participants between 50 and 60 participants (18.75%), and three studies had participants greater than 100 (18.7%). The small participant size may be an indication that the simulation research is still developing.

In terms of the participant population, the undergraduate year level of the participants of most studies was not identified (68.75%). Two studies focused on first year ITE students (12.5%), while second year (6.25%), third year (6.25%), and final-year students were the focus of one study each.

The simulation duration appears to be in the trial stage for effectiveness and recommendation purposes. Some articles were classified as ‘not identified’ because the length of time in the simulation was not reported. Altogether, five articles were determined to be not identified (31.25%), three articles conducted a single 10-min simulation (18.75%), two studies implemented two 10-min sessions (12.5%) and then the remaining seven studies trialled a range of simulation times. Some studies may not have reported the simulation duration because the students completed modules within the simulation program. For example, in the Ghazarian et al. (2022) study, ITE students were allocated 24 learning modules to complete.

Research in simulation in ITE appears to be becoming more frequent and global in scale. There is an increasing popularity for simulation in ITE, with 12 articles published in the last 5 years. Across the 10-year study period, 4 years did not return a study. In the case of 2023, this is likely due to when the search phase of the scoping review was conducted, and if the search phase was repeated at the end of 2023, the results may differ. Australia was the most popular country of study (n = 9), followed by the United States (n = 5), and a single study from both Canada (n = 1) and the Philippines (n = 1). However, the number of returned studies was limited, which suggests a small, but growing field.

Narrative review

The following section reports on the themes from the literature including the rationale for simulation, the definition of the three types of simulation technologies and the impact of simulation on ITE student teaching skills and pedagogies.

Rationale for Simulation

In response to ITE students’ feedback that they are not adequately prepared for their traditional placements and the classroom, ITE providers have explored the efficacy of simulation as a comprehensive preparation tool (Fischetti et al., 2022; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Muir et al., 2013; Rappa, 2019; Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022). Judge et al. (2013) highlight the importance of ITE programs offering innovative opportunities to strengthen both the quantity and quality of ITE graduates. Traditional placements are restricted by multifaceted demands placed on both the school and the supervising teacher (Heffernan et al., 2019; Longmuir et al., 2022); therefore, the competency development of the ITE student can be impacted by the placement setting (Walters et al., 2021). Bolstering ITE students’ confidence and teaching skills is likely to result in more successful classroom teachers, and ideally, teachers who remain within the profession (Ghazarain et al., 2022; Judge et al., 2013; Ledger et al., 2019).

Impact of Simulation

Several studies explored the effectiveness of simulation programs to improve ITE student pedagogical choices and concurred that whilst there were aspects of the programs that required improvement, overall, simulation was an effective strategy (Badiee & Koufman, 2015; Fischetti et al., 2022; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Ledger et al., 2019; Medula, 2017; Muir et al., 2013; Pendergast et al., 2022; Rappa, 2019; Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022). Ledger and Fischetti (2020) report on a limitation of traditional placements in that ‘they put novices in situations with real students before demonstrating capability’ (p. 37). Further, supervisor feedback is not always timely and the placement exposure for the ITE student can be opportunistic (Ledger et al., 2019). Simulation technologies offer stronger ITE student support (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020; Muir et al., 2022).

Simulation is an authentic and supplementary opportunity for practice, which enables ITE students to feel comfortable trialling teaching strategies (Judge et al. 2013). Lamb and Etopio (2020) define soft-failure environments as a ‘context where failure is temporary and embraced as an opportunity to experiment and develop a high level of efficiency’ (p. 573). Eight studies explored the concept of soft-failure environments afforded via simulation (Fischetti et al., 2022; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Medula, 2017; Muir et al., 2013; Rappa, 2019; Scarpalolo & Mayne, 2022). To establish a soft-failure environment, ITE students were assured that they could trial and practice strategies without fear of consequences to classroom students (Fischetti et al., 2022). Five studies argue that it was the awareness of the soft-failure environment and removal of repercussions on real students that is advantageous (Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Muir et al., 2013; Rappa, 2019; Scarpaolo & Mayne, 2022).

Two studies explored the idea that simulation is supportive of allowing ITE students to self-assess their initial practices and use the experience to develop a stronger understanding of their strengths and areas that may require development (Gul & Pecore, 2020; Medula, 2017). Additionally, it is through trial and error that ITE students can develop responses and strategies to a variety of scenarios (Rappa, 2019). Repeating simulation opportunities can act as a conduit between theory and practice in which ITE students can emerge as teachers (Fischetti et al., 2022).

ITE students have consistently raised concerns that they feel insufficiently prepared for the classroom (Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Muir et al., 2013). Simulation was shown to increase ITE students’ confidence to undertake traditional placements (Fischetti et al., 2022, p. 164). Simulation also increased reported ITE student self-efficacy, for example, most of the participants demonstrated an increase in confidence levels before simulation (15%) and after simulation (85%) (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020).

With an increase in ITE student self-regulation and awareness of heightened emotions during simulated opportunities, ITE students were more likely to feel confident to undertake placement opportunities (Ghazarian et al., 2022). Ledger et al. (2019) argue that simulation increased ITE student self-efficacy and capabilities. A further strength is the opportunity for ITE students to put theory into practice (Medula, 2019). Simulation has been identified as a proactive preparation tool to counter student negative beliefs and stress levels (Gul & Pecore, 2020) and there is a demonstrated increase in confidence and competence in traditional placement opportunities after students have experienced simulation (Pendergast et al., 2022).

Response to Different types of Simulation Technologies

Non-immersive VR technologies are defined as online simulation programs that ITE students access from their own devices, at any time, to engage with the simulated content (Huang et al., 2021). Non-immersive VR technologies have pre-set scenarios and student profiles and ITE students practice teaching scenarios through the decisions they make within the simulation. Some non-immersive VR technologies, such as SimSchool, can collect and report on user data. An example from the Badiee and Kouffman (2015) study includes the data compiled from the SimSchool simulation about the ITE students’ choices such as interactions with students, differentiation of learning opportunities, and behaviour management strategies.

Advantages of non-immersive VR technologies include flexibility for the ITE student to access the simulation at a time that is suitable to them (Ghazarian et al., 2022); the ability to repeat modules (Medula, 2017); access to the simulation as frequently as the ITE student chooses (Medula, 2017); varied simulation experience pending the influence and choices of the ITE student (Muir et al., 2013); and the data compilation of the program (Ghazarain et al., 2022). The opportunity to choose what experiences the ITE students are exposed to and ascertain the progress of the ITE students as frequently as necessary is also advantageous (Ghazarain et al., 2022).

Although positive reports exist in the studies, ITE students, however, noted they found non-immersive VR technologies limiting in the aspect that the simulation did not accurately replicate a real-world teaching experience (Badiee & Koufman, 2015; Muir et al., 2013). For example, they reported feeling restricted by the decision making options presented within the software, that there were limitations of the user interface such as moveability, and that they desired more time in the simulation paired with stronger instructor support (Badiee & Koufman, 2015). The participants in the Muir et al. (2013) study agreed that the simulation was beneficial, however, concluded that it should be utilised as an addition to and not in replacement of traditional placements. Extending on the notion that non-immersive VR technologies lack realism, Badiee and Koufman (2015) indicate 72.7% of participants reported that they were unsure if what they learned in simulation would be transferable to the classroom. In consideration of the reported shortcomings of non-immersive VR simulations, it may be beneficial to develop stronger support processes and user guides to prepare ITE students for simulation.

Semi-immersive VR technologies replicate the classroom environment with the inclusion of cameras, microphones, and motion trackers to authentically respond to the ITE student’s actions as they occur (Huang et al., 2021). Semi-immersive VR technologies reported in this scoping review all incorporated a human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulating the avatars that were developed based on William Long’s (1989) categorisation of adolescent personalities (as cited in Ledger et al., 2019, p. 4).

Identified strengths of semi-immersive VR technologies include stronger links between theory and practice (Fischetti et al., 2022); strengthened ITE student retention (Judge et al., 2013); responsiveness of the simulation (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020); removal of pressure on ITE students to practise and trial putting theory into practise (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020); flexibility for targeted skills practise (Walters et al., 2021); and reflexive identification of areas requiring development and practise (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020). In noting the limitations, in the Fischetti et al. (2022) study, 8% of the participants reported that they did not find the simulation a beneficial learning experience. To address the ITE student requests for better preparation materials, Ledger et al., (2019) created a bank of simulation resources, including a video to adequately prepare ITE students to undertake the simulation.

Fully immersive VR technologies deeply replicate the simulated environment by creating an augmented scenario (Huang et al., 2021). The Lamb and Etopio (2020) study was the singular quantitative fully immersive VR study, and they used a VR headset. Other fully immersive technologies include 360-degree virtual reality simulators, however, none of the studies adopted this technology. Lamb and Etopio (2020) compared the neuroimaging and physiological responses of ITE students who completed a traditional placement, with ITE students who completed a fully immersed simulated placement, which occurred in the same school and classroom as their peers’ traditional placement. Of interest, the reported findings indicate that through the analysis of the sensory system, the fully immersive VR experience was able to accurately replicate a traditional placement opportunity (Lamb & Etopio, 2020).

An identified strength of fully immersive VR included the seamless reality created by simulation (Lamb & Etopio, 2020). The development opportunities presented to ITE students through simulation facilitated the development of authentic learning processes. The study suggests that with adequate resources and the development of fully immersive scenarios, simulation can be utilised to enhance the preparation of ITE students for the classroom (Lamb & Etopio, 2020).

The Impact of Simulation on ITE Student Teaching Skills and Pedagogies

The effects of simulation on pedagogical practice received significant attention from eight studies (Finn et al., 2020; Fischetti et al., 2022; Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Ledger et al., 2019; Medula, 2017; Pendergast et al., 2022; Sasaki et al., 2020). Simulation technologies enabled ITE students to trial and develop effective teaching strategies (Lamb & Etopio, 2020). It has also been reported that following simulation, ITE students began focusing on student-centred strategies (Finn et al., 2020).

In ITE programs, reflection is defined as the consideration of the outcome of pedagogical choices, and potential changes that could be made in the future (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020). The research suggests simulation enabled ITE providers to strategically expose ITE students to situations, and through timely academic staff support and questioning, facilitate the reflective process (Finn et al., 2020; Fischetti et al., 2022). This guided reflection process can be facilitated by a tutor or lecturer to support the ITE students in the reflective process (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020). Rappa (2019) reports that it was the support and suggestions of the university tutor that the ITE students valued the most during their simulation experience.

Whilst traditional placements incorporate the reflection process through assessment tasks, simulation technologies prompt an immediate reflective process. For example, in the Scarparolo and Mayne (2022) study, the ITE students praised simulation for the affordance to reflect upon their practice in simulation. Furthermore, the ITE students stated that they could identify how they would adapt their practice when they enter the scenario either in simulation or in real-life (Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022).

In simulation studies, ITE students demonstrated an increased awareness about their teaching practice and potential challenges, such as behaviour management (Finn et al., 2020; Gul & Pecore, 2020). It has been suggested that ITE students are provided with access to a recording of the simulation to enable an identification of aspects that can be adapted into their future teaching opportunities (Muir et al., 2013). Semi-immersive and fully immersive technologies have the capacity to do this, however, Finn et al. (2020) report it is unclear if recordings of the individual ITE student simulation experience provided were beneficial. Moreover, Rappa (2019) argues that the significant aspect of the simulation is the ITE students’ reflection upon their practice, which should be supported by the academic staff immediately following the simulation.

Micro-teaching is a widely adopted approach in which ITE students practise their teaching skills with their peers acting as classroom students or parents (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020). However, some such as Scarparolo and Mayne (2022) identify that as ITE students generally have the same theoretical understanding, micro-teaching is not able to realistically replicate a teaching scenario. Simulation offers a solution to this as the avatars have been developed to replicate a range of personalities (Ledger et al., 2019).

Ledger and Fischetti (2022) argue that simulation is ‘Micro-teaching 2.0’ to bridge the knowledge and skills of ITE students from their tertiary studies, into the classroom. ITE students reported they found simulation to be more beneficial than traditional tutorial-based micro-teaching opportunities when ITE students were able to collaborate and strategise teaching methods to address a particular skill (Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022). Whilst collaborative ITE student simulation may produce the same cooperative behaviour as traditional micro-teaching (Muir et al., 2013), simulated micro-teaching may present the opportunity to authentically develop teaching skills and replicate Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory in the tertiary context (Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022).

Simulation increased the ITE students’ awareness of the diverse needs of the students that they may encounter both on placements and within their future classrooms (Finn et al., 2020). Two studies focused on simulation as a tool to increase the awareness of classroom cultural pedagogies and the cultural influences of the ITE students on their teaching practice (Finn et al., 2020; Ghazarian et al., 2022). Whilst traditional placement classroom cohorts are dependent on the placement school’s context, simulation allowed ITE students to increase their knowledge of cultural and student diversity (Finn et al., 2020). Through simulation, ITE students were supported to reflect upon their own culture and how it impacted their teaching (Finn et al., 2020). Finn et al. (2020) note that the ITE students reflected on their own culture and how this may relate to the classroom students and to further consider the impact that culture has on both teaching and learning. The simulated placement and guided reflection resulted in an increase in the ITE students’ culturally responsive pedagogy (Ghazarain et al., 2022).

ITE students are traditionally prepared for parent-teacher conferences via theoretical discussions with academic staff (Rappa, 2019). Two studies focused on simulation as a method to practice parent-teacher conferences and meetings (Rappa, 2019; Scarpaolo & Mayne, 2022). ITE students identified their concerns about leading parent-teacher interactions and felt positive about simulation as a tool to address this concern (Scarpaolo & Mayne 2022). However, prior to the simulation, ITE students also identified they were nervous as they had previously received very little guidance on parent interactions (Scarpaolo & Mayne, 2022). The literature is supportive of rehearsing parent-teacher interactions, Rappa (2019) reported that simulation was an effective means to support ITE student self-efficacy and competency in the parent-teacher context. Scarpaolo and Mayne (2022) identify that this simulation supported the ITE students’ confidence in both interacting with parents and rationalising differentiation choices. Furthermore, Rappa (2019) praises the reflective process afforded by the simulation process to encourage students to consider possible strategies for fostering positive collaboration with parents.

Behaviour management capabilities of ITE students have been identified as one of the key areas of concern reported by schools and the Department of Education (Parliament of New South Wales, 2022). Lamb and Etopio (2020) advocated for ITE students to explore a range of behaviour management strategies in an environment safe from real-life repercussions. Four studies noted an increase in behaviour management skills in ITE students after simulation (Ghazarian et al., 2022; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020). Judge et al. (2013) indicated that ITE students increased engagement strategies as a preventative and redirected approach to undesirable behaviours. A student commented that the simulation ‘made me more aware of the options that I have when dealing with student disruptions’ (Judge et al., 2013, p. 95). Furthermore, two studies reported that ITE students demonstrated stronger awareness and capability to implement student self-regulation strategies (Ghazarian et al., 2022; Gul & Pecore, 2020).

In simulation, the supporting academics focus on ITE students developing teaching skills, on the other hand within traditional placements, the supervising teacher focuses on both the needs of their class and supporting the ITE students (Badiee & Koufman, 2015). Three studies commented on the beneficial value of instructor support in the simulation process (Badiee & Koufman, 2015; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Rappa, 2019). Gul and Pecore (2020) noted that the support of a simulation instructor alleviated some ITE concerns about dealing with behaviour management. Rappa (2019) identified that ITE students acknowledged the most beneficial component of the simulation was the instructor’s timely and elaborate feedback. Judge et al. (2013) explored three different feedback types. The strongest ITE students’ positive feedback came from the group with an intervention strategy and no instructor feedback, however, the groups that received instructor feedback demonstrated the strongest evidence of applying the intervention strategy. This suggests that the relationship between the ITE student and mentor may play a role in the ITE students’ perception of the quality of the feedback.

Four studies identified that simulation can be an effective diagnostic tool for remedial purposes (Finn et al., 2020; Ledger & Fischetti, 2020; Scarpalolo & Mayne, 2022; Walters et al., 2021). For example, Scarpalolo and Mayne (2022) used the simulation opportunities to identify areas of revision for tutorials, and additionally, to assess the subject objectives. Finn et al. (2020) suggested that simulation can identify knowledge or skills gaps, which have become more pertinent since COVID-19. Walters et al., (2021) however, advance that simulation affords mastery of teaching skills and an opportunity for students who require remedial support to be guided in a supported environment.

The literature suggests simulation is an effective tool as a prerequisite before an ITE student undertakes placement. Judge et al. (2013) highlight that ITE students reported an appreciation for learning about and attempting new strategies offered through simulation. Pendergast et al. (2022) and Fischetti et al. (2022) concur, reporting that ITE demonstrated an increase in pedagogical development. Interestingly, Ledger et al. (2019) report that most ITE students selected teacher-centred strategies rather than student-centred strategies in simulation.

Discussion

The research question that shaped this project is: what is known about simulation technologies and their application to initial teacher education programs? Overall, all articles were supportive of simulation as an effective and beneficial tool for ITE students. The studies acknowledged and reported on aspects of simulation that can be improved to benefit ITE students. Overall, it seems that ITE providers are exploring the efficacy of simulation as an opportunity for ITE students to connect theory and practice. Key improvements to ITE students’ teaching skills and pedagogies included an increase in awareness of the needs of classroom students (Ghazarian et al., 2022); strategies to manage challenging behaviour (Finn et al., 2020); capturing student engagement (Pendergast et al., 2022); and interacting with parents (Scarpaolo & Mayne, 2022). Importantly, simulation created a soft-failure environment in which ITE students were supported to develop, trial, and create a range of prepared ITE student situational responses (Fischetti et al., 2022; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Medula, 2017; Muir et al., 2013; Rappa, 2019; Scarpalolo & Mayne, 2022).

A noteworthy finding of this scoping review is the small-scale application of technologies in isolated occasions within single subjects (62.5%), in which, the simulation was not implemented at a program level. This suggests that simulation is not fully embedded across ITE programs, and that simulation in ITE is still in the trial and development stage. Moreover, a research gap is the low number of studies that used large and varied cohorts of students. Further research should identify the undergraduate year level to provide a holistic picture of what has been trialled, and what is effective for ITE students as they progress through their degree. It would be informative if research was conducted to compare the ITE experiences, and skills growth between the three simulation types: non-immersive, semi-immersive and fully immersive VR technologies.

The evidence provided in this scoping review suggests that simulation should be considered a possible enhancement to ITE programs, rather than an alternative to traditional placements (Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Muir et al., 2013). A consistent theme throughout the literature was the acknowledgement that whilst traditional placements cannot be replaced by simulation, ITE students are disadvantaged when they are not adequately prepared to successfully navigate the complex relationships between themselves, the classroom teacher and classroom students (Finn et al., 2020; Ghazarain et al., 2013; Ledger & Fischetti, 2020; Muir et al., 2013). In addition to utilising simulation to bridge the theory and practice gap, simulation complements authentic learning opportunities and critical reflection to enable ITE students to develop a holistic understanding of a range of teaching practices (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020; Rappa, 2019). Furthermore, the evidence suggests that simulations may offer a feasible solution for addressing the limitations of the quality of school-based placements, such as organisational challenges (Badiee & Koufman, 2015); limited access to supervisors (Ghazarian et al., 2022); and high levels of ITE student stress (Gul & Pecore, 2020).

Implications for future practice and research

For initial teacher educators, this scoping review has presented emerging evidence of the benefits of incorporating simulation technologies to enrich existing subjects and course designs. Indeed, there are an array of models presented in the scoped literature showing how various technologies, ranging from generalised tools, such as Microsoft Teams (Pendergast et al., 2022), through to specialised resources, such as SimSchool (Badiee & Koufman, 2015; Ghazarian et al., 2022; Medula, 2017). ClassSim (Gul & Prcore, 2020), iSee (Pendergast et al., 2022), Mixed-reality simulation (Walters et al., 2021), Mursion software (Finn et al., 2020; Fischetti et al., 2022; Judge et al., 2013; Legder & Fischetti, 2019; Rappa, 2019; Sasaki et al., 2020; Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022), SecondLife (Muir et al., 2013) and VR Classrooms (Lamb & Etopio, 2020), all now have some evidence for their efficacy in ITE settings. Regardless of budget and systemic challenges, there are many simulation technologies that can be harnessed by initial teacher educators to bridge theory–practice divides and prepare students for their transitions into school settings (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010). More uptake and research are needed in this emerging field to advance our collective understanding regarding the form, function and fit of simulation technologies in ITE.

There are many avenues for further research in this nascent field of simulation technologies in ITE. In a broad sense, research should focus on preservice teachers’ responses to simulation technologies as they advance through their degrees, with a particular emphasis on how practical experience placements are impacted. Additionally, the length and nature of embedded simulation technology experiences should be investigated with a particular focus on long-term impacts to move toward a concept of ‘best practice’ in this space. Currently the literature advocates for longer simulation experiences (Badiee & Koufman, 2015; Muir et al., 2013) but these are not yet defined. Exploring the perceptions of the benefits and contraindications of simulation from the perspective of ITE students and academic staff would be instructive (Badiee & Koufman, 2015; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Leger & Fischetti, 2019). This may help to address preservice teachers’ feelings of judgement and anxiety that are often reported (Fischetti et al., 2022; Walters et al., 2021). It would also behove researchers and educators to explore the possible benefits of simulation technologies beyond specific experiences as they can produce recordings for professional reflection, authentic assessment, and enhancement of ITE curriculum materials (Scarparolo & Mayne, 2022).

Limitations

This project was limited by considerable variance in terminology relating to ITE students, simulation and workplace learning. This sizable range in terminology hinders both the results and accessibility of information when searching and screening for information on simulation practices in ITE programs. It is recommended that the following most popular phrases are adopted in future research: pre-service teacher (Finn et al., 2020; Fischetti et al., 2022; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Judge et al., 2013; Lamb & Etopio, 2020; Ledger & Fischetti, 2020; Ledger et al., 2019; Muir, 2013; Rappa, 2019), simulation (Fischetti et al., 2022; Ledger & Fischetti, 2020) and practicum (Badiee & Koufmann, 2015; Gul & Pecore, 2020; Rappa, 2019). The use of international collaboration and unified terminology would further the development of this emerging field.

Conclusion

This scoping review has provided some evidence that simulation in ITE is associated with improvements in ITE students’ teaching skills and pedagogies. Overall, continued research with larger participant numbers would be beneficial. Whilst increasing in popularity, the research field for simulation is still developing and the establishment of specific guidelines as to how simulation should be integrated into ITE programs is yet to emerge. Future longitudinal and program-level research focusing on the form, function, and fit simulation technologies in ITE would be advantageous. As simulation in ITE programs gains momentum universal collaboration, definition, and research to identify continuous improvement is recommended. If implemented across several ITE subjects, and used as a complement to traditional placements, simulation can support the creation of ITE graduates who have amalgamated deep theoretical and practical understanding of the classroom.