1 Introduction

Since the past decades, there has been an increasing focus on climate change and its impact on livelihoods in research and practice [19, 67]. Scholars show that while the effects of climate change are widespread [69], the agriculture sector, particularly smallholder farmers engaged in food crop farming, appears to be the most affected [11, 39]. Climatic events such as unpredictable rainfall patterns, flooding, drought, rising temperatures, and insect infestations have been observed to limit the production capacities of smallholder farmers [10, 16, 27]. Although these events are not limited to specific geographic areas, studies have shown that Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries are more vulnerable due to their reliance on rain-fed agriculture and the presence of numerous smallholder farmers with limited adaptive capacities [26, 39, 66]. These smallholder farmers utilize approximately 62% of the farmlands in Africa [19, 23]. Again, while adapting to climatic events is not entirely beyond the abilities of smallholder farmers, climate change scholars explain that smallholder farmers are vulnerable due to extreme exposure to climatic shocks and stressors in environmentally challenging production landscapes. Their livelihoods revolve within rain-fed agriculture with equally low resource capacity to adapt to systemic failures [25, 28, 44]. As a result, these farmers face multiple challenges posed by erratic rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, and the loss of soil moisture due to land degradation, desertification, soil erosion, and windstorms, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Sahel regions [48, 52]. Due to these complexities, smallholder farmers often have to make trade-offs in terms of inputs, labor, and tillage methods to adapt their food crop farming practices to climate change [1, 13, 15, 21].

In Sub-Saharan Africa, studies have reported varied enabling policies and programmes that aimed at assisting smallholder farmers in adapting to climatic events. These include the provision of improved farm inputs and mechanization, training farmers on modernized farming practices, introducing and adopting improved crop varieties, promoting diversification and intercropping. Others include advocate for Conservation Agriculture to conserve soil moisture in farmlands and adapt to erratic rainfall patterns [29, 30, 66]. Alternative programs include Sustainable Agriculture Intensification (SAI), with a focus on "saving to grow" and aims to increase agricultural outputs through conservation agriculture and the judicious use of inputs [23, 68]. SAI promotes practices such as reduced tillage, crop rotation, mulching, cultivating early maturing and nitrogen-fixing crops, and employing integrated pest management strategies. Additionally, Agro-ecological farming practices are assumed as viable approach to climate change adaptation. These practices contribute to soil health preservation and improvement, promote biomass and nutrient recycling, enhance biological diversity, facilitate beneficial interactions between species, and optimize the utilization of water, energy, nutrients, and genetic resources [52, 60]. It is also deemed useful for preserving soil structure, mitigating land degradation, and enabling the cultivation of food crops with limited resources [49]. AEI paradigms place emphasis on farmers’ ability to maintain farm size, yet maximize food crop yields by drawing on integrated practices [54]. Studies in this field have contended that agro-ecological farming practices play a vital role in "building back better" and transitioning towards sustainable food production [26]. These scholars propose that agro-ecological intensification (AEI) places less emphasis on soil tillage and chemical inputs, instead focusing on on-farm biodiversity conservation and natural regeneration [64]. These farming practices are gradually shifting from a mere collection of methods to a comprehensive, principle-based approach to food production [36]. These farming practices encompass conventional and/or indigenous farming techniques alongside agro-ecological science, often employing strategies like cover cropping, agroforestry, green manure, and minimal soil tillage to cultivate crops for human consumption rather than cash crops [67]. These are aimed at establishing a set of agricultural practices that maximize productivity, reduce reliance on external inputs, and prevent the depletion of natural resources.

However, over the years, studies on AEI primarily examines the costs and benefits associated with the utilization of farm inputs in AEI and how farmers respond to the use of chemical fertilizers or the green revolution [30, 66]. Some scholars explore the connections between socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers and the implementation of ecological agriculture intensification [42]. Other enlightening studies highlight the global progress in AEI while also revealing the limited adoption of ecological intensification practices among farmers [52, 63]. A study conducted in Malawi [34] demonstrates the intergenerational dynamics in agricultural production, particularly emphasizing how the elderly benefit from access to arable land due to population growth, along with the low adoption of AEI. Additionally, further efforts [61] illustrate the impact of information technologies such as radio and SMS in raising awareness among smallholder farmers for the adoption of AEI. Considering the significant loss of soil moisture in the Sahel and Saharan regions caused by irregular rainfall patterns and rising temperatures, these studies emphasize the importance of AEI for soil and water conservation practices as a means of climate change adaptation [I7]. In Ghana, a historical account of farmers' soil and water conservation practices reveals how farmers have traditionally relied on local and indigenous methods for food crop production [13]. In light of the aforementioned studies, this paper expands upon existing research on smallholders' soil and water conservation practices, illustrating the relationship between traditional water and soil management approaches and AEI principles in adapting food crop production to climate change.

Building on previous studies [e.g., 34, 42, 52, 61], this paper aims to explore the traditional soil and water management practices of smallholder farmers and their relationship with AEI principles towards adapting food crop production to climate change. To achieve this, our study has the following objectives: (i) to explore farmers' narratives regarding traditional soil and water management practices; (ii) to examine community-wide soil and water conservation practices; and (iii) to discuss the linkages between smallholder farmer practices and AEI principles in adapting food crop production to climate change. The paper is structured as follows: Sect. 2 provides a conceptual overview of smallholder farmers, AEI, and its relevance to climate change adaptation; Sect. 3, presents the study area and methodology employed; Sect. 4 presents the results, including the narratives of smallholder farmers on soil and water conservation practices, as well as a synthesis of community-wide practices; and in Sect. 5, we discuss the results and how smallholder farmers' soil and water management practices relate to AEI principles for climate change adaptation. Finally, Sect. 6 concludes the paper by highlighting the implications for development planning.

2 Smallholder farmers, soil and water management practices, AEI, and climate change adaptation

2.1 Smallholder farmers and smallholder agriculture

In the field of agriculture, smallholder farmers are commonly referred to as small-scale agricultural producers. In Asia, these farmers are described as individuals who cultivate less than 2 hectares of land [6]. In Africa, smallholder farmers are defined as those whose cultivable lands do not exceed 1.28 hectares [23], or 2 hectares or less [37]. While there is agreement among scholars regarding the purpose, scope, and use of family labor for production among smallholder farmers, there is variation in the exact scale of production and the specific types of food they produce. This study defines smallholders as subsistence producers of food crops based on these distinctions. In Sub-Saharan Africa, smallholder farmers play a significant role, meeting approximately 90% of the region's food needs and providing employment opportunities [31, 37]. However, they face diverse challenges due to extreme dependent on rain-fed agriculture and their limited capacity to adapt to climate change [68]. The vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers stem primarily from ecological factors such as increasing soil infertility, loss of vegetation, land degradation, and desertification, aggravated by population growth [4].

Scholars have demonstrated how smallholder farmers employ remediation techniques, including the use of nanomaterials, to address soil pollution and conserve water resources [55, 66]. Related studies show that smallholder farmers lack knowledge about advanced methods such as phytodegradation and phytoextraction for managing polluted soil and water. Instead, they rely on composting as a remediation practice [46, 57]. To manage soil and water farmers implement agronomic practices like cover cropping. This involves deliberate cultivation of certain crops to maintain soil fertility, retain moisture, prevent erosion, and sustain microbial activity in the soil [17]. Additional research expands on these findings by demonstrating how combining cover cropping with no-till practices minimizes soil disturbance in the agricultural landscape. This approach facilitates soil carbon sequestration while reducing nitrate and nutrient leaching on farmlands. The choice of soil and water management practices in arable lands depends on the characteristics of the terrain [65]. Studies further highlight that smallholder farmers utilize techniques such as soil bunds, hedgerows, and stone bunds to mitigate erosion caused by runoff water on low-water-absorption farmlands. These practices have significant potential for combating soil erosion and are widely adopted in Sub-Saharan Africa [66]. Moreover, to manage the effects of soil erosion on nutrient content in the soil, farmers make use of Vicia Sativa as a means of reducing erosion on farmlands when the interest is in plantation farming [3]. These practices also promote water logging on the farmlands. However, smallholder farmers adopt a blend, by engaging in plantation farming and the cultivation of perennial crops reducing direct sunlight that causes evaporation towards soil moisture conservation [3]. In this context, the debris of the plants often plays a critical role, serving as manure to enrich soil nutrients as well as conserving soil moisture.

The agricultural sector in Ghana plays a significant role in driving economic growth, serves as the largest source of employment, and is primarily composed of smallholder farmers. However, it is also the sector most severely affected by climate change [31, 50]. Crop farmers in particular face considerable challenges due to unpredictable and heavy rainfall, particularly in the northern region of Ghana [14]. Smallholder farmers are not immune to the impacts of drought, soil erosion, flooding, and windstorms [18]. Throughout the years, farmers have relied on their own initiatives and traditional knowledge systems to engage in agricultural production [50, 51]. While food crop farmers predominantly rely on local practices, such as cultivating diverse crop varieties and practicing crop rotation, as well as engaging in animal rearing to adapt to climate change and variability, their ability to adapt is further enhanced by increasing farm size and remittance income [13]. These adaptation strategies are often influenced by the past experiences of farmers [2].

2.2 Understanding the key principles of agro-ecological intensification (AEI) for climate change adaptation

Agricultural Ecological Intensification (AEI) emerged in the 1980s, more prominent in the early 2000s as an alternative farming approach aimed at promoting environmental sustainability within the food crop production landscape [50, 57, 59]. AEI can be defined as a set of farming practices that rely on ecosystem services rather than external inputs [60]. It emphasizes integrated approaches, such as integrated cropping, soil, water, and nutrient management (ICSWNM). Core principles of AEI include prioritizing soil health, recycling soil nutrients, and preserving the biological diversity and structure of the soil [62]. The main objective of AEI is to reduce dependence on external inputs while enhancing the productivity of both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of agricultural systems through the application of ecological principles in farm management [41]. The effectiveness of AEI is evaluated based on crop yields and the overall socioeconomic status of smallholder farmers. Several factors influence the adoption of agro-ecological farming practices by smallholder farmers. These factors encompass demand-related aspects (such as the political environment), validation from community practitioners, farmers' capabilities (including skills, initiative, and financial resources), and their motivation (gained through a better understanding of ecosystem dynamics and a lack of community support) [10, 60]. Related studies indicate that AEI practices often work in conjunction with new or modernized technologies. This is aimed at enhancing crop varieties, by incorporating traditional agronomic practices that focus on biological processes and the restoration of environmental quality within a specific production context [6, 12, 22]. These approaches rely more on local resources, indigenous knowledge, and cost-effective alternatives to chemical fertilizers. Some studies have compared the blending of indigenous production methods with modernity as a form of endogenous development.

Within the context of AEI, Integrated Cropping, Soil, Water, and Nutrient Management (ICSWNM) and Conservation Agriculture (CA) are encompassed [3]. These practices play a significant role in preserving soil fertility and quality, particularly when the focus is on nutrient availability and soil retention [24, 65]. Conservation agriculture practices are guided by three fundamental principles: crop diversification, minimal soil disturbances, and the promotion of permanent soil cover. Crop diversification involves cultivating multiple crop varieties within a given area. Minimal soil disturbance aims to enhance the physical and chemical properties of the soil, reduce compaction, water loss, and erosion, and establish healthy crop growth through practices such as minimal tillage, zero tillage, and stubble mulch tillage [50, 57]. To ensure permanent soil cover, it is necessary to provide year-round protection through the cultivation of cover crops, which can be interceded during the growing season [50]. AEI may offer potential to achieve balance environmental outcomes by preserving biodiversity, restoring and sustaining soil structure, and ultimately enhancing long-term yields of food crops [24, 32, 47, 67]. It serves as a proactive approach to counter land degradation, the desertification of farmlands, and the escalating costs associated with agricultural inputs [12, 30, 52, 53].

However, a recent study indicates that the benefits of AEI are not often homogeneously experienced by all farmers. The variations are often attributed to farm management practices of farmers, shaped by the capacity for routine farm management [47]. Additionally, there are discrepancies in the socio-economic characteristics of farmers, as well as variations in ecological settings and production motivations among smallholder farmers [47]. These variations play a significant role in shaping the outcomes of agro-ecological farming practices for different farmers. The ability of smallholder farmers to engage in AEI largely depends on the availability of knowledge and resources within their local context [4, 45]. This is reflected in their adoption of various agronomic practices, such as implementing intensified cropping systems and intercropping legumes with non-leguminous crops to enhance soil fertility [29, 40]. Typically, integrating legumes into maize-based cropping systems serves as an alternative to inorganic fertilizers, contributing to biodiversity conservation [67]. These practices have been shown to contribute to weed and pest control, improve soil fertility, support pollination and nutrient cycling [33], and reduce water loss rates, facilitating the adaptation of food crop cultivation to prevailing climatic conditions [7, 24, 56]. In the realm of AEI, individual farming practices and the development of farmers' knowledge play a crucial role in addressing ecological, social, and economic conditions, as well as adapting food crop production to climate change [43]. Scholars have also emphasized the significance of collective action in effectively implementing AEI practices, highlighting the importance of social capital for achieving widespread impact [53]. The formation of social capital, which involves networking and mutual engagement among farmers for shared benefits, can contribute to the comprehensive adoption of soil conservation practices [53]. This includes practices such as manure application, agroforestry, cover cropping, integrating crop and livestock production, promoting polyculture, and conserving on-farm biodiversity [67]. Farmers' collaborative social capital formation acts as a foundation for knowledge sharing and pooling of labor for farming activities [38]. Therefore, the establishment of farmers' associations, such as village savings and loans associations.

3 Material and methods

3.1 Study area

The research was carried out in two farming communities, namely Ko and Tanchara, located in the adjacent districts of Lawra and Nandom in the Upper West Region of Ghana. The Lawra Municipality encompasses a total of 55 farming communities and shares borders with Nandom District to the North, Lambussie-Karni District to the East, Jirapa to the South, and the Republic of Burkina Faso to the West. On the other hand, Nandom District is bordered by Lambussie District to the East, Jirapa Municipality to the South, and the Republic of Burkina Faso to the North and West [66]. Nandom District covers an area of 567.6 km2, accounting for approximately 3.1% of the region's total land area, which is approximately 18,476 km2. (See Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Source: Authors’ Construct

Map of the study communities and districts.

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The two communities under study, Ko and Tanchara, possess underground water resources that have the potential for borehole drilling to support irrigation during the dry season [66, 67]. However, these communities primarily rely on subsistence smallholder farming, with some farmers cultivating on the flood plains of the Black Volta and the sandy loam soil along the tributaries [66, 67]. The land in these areas is relatively flat and situated at low altitudes, ranging from 30 to 180 m above sea level, and is characterized by isolated round hills known as inselbergs. The selection of these particular communities was purposefully based on the prevalence of smallholder farmers engaged in subsistence farming.

The study communities exhibited vegetation typical of the Guinea Savannah, characterized by short grasses and scattered woody plants. One of the primary obstacles to smallholders' food crop production is environmental degradation in the region. This degradation primarily stems from tree cutting for firewood and charcoal production, bush burning, excessive grazing by livestock, and improper farming methods. Smallholder farmers face ongoing challenges such as soil erosion and infertility, which hinder their annual production. To address these issues, the Government of Ghana (GOG), through the Forestry Commission (FC), has established tree plantations aimed at regenerating and conserving tree species to enhance land cover in the area [23]. The selection of the aforementioned communities was based on the prevalence of smallholder farmers practicing subsistence farming, as previously mentioned. Furthermore, there is evidence of a shift from extensive farming towards intensified agriculture due to climate change [1, 13].

3.2 Data collection and analysis

The study used a qualitative narrative research method to gain a comprehensive understanding of the soil and water conservation practices associated with agro-ecological intensification agriculture among smallholder farmers. This method enabled the conduct of in-depth interviews and farmer households’ case studies, in which data were collected on smallholder farmers' soil and water management practices in relation to agro-ecological intensification. The case studies focused on three farmer households with extensive experience in implementing soil and water conservation practices for climate change adaptation. Through the farmers’ household case studies; valuable insights were obtained regarding the narratives and experiences of farmers in regard to soil and water conservation practices. Additionally, four focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with farmer groups in the study communities, comprising two women's groups and two men's groups. Each FGD session involved eleven (11) participants and aimed to gain a broader community perspective on soil and water management practices.

In order to gain insights into the broader perspectives of the community regarding soil and water management practices, the study conducted ten (11) key informant interviews. These interviews served two purposes: firstly, to gather context-specific experiences from farmer households concerning soil and water management practices, and secondly, to identify community-wide soil and water conservation practices in order to establish synergy. The key informant interviews involved various individuals such as Assembly members, Chiefs, earthly priests (Tindamba), women leaders (Maakazie), and youth leaders (both male and female). These respondents were purposively selected based on their extensive knowledge of farming practices in the selected communities. The combination of all these interviews contributed to a comprehensive understanding of the soil and water conservation practices employed by farmers in the study communities. All data were collected using interview guides, and the face-to-face interviews were recorded and transcribed. Thematic analysis was conducted, facilitated by MAXQA, and the transcribed data were categorized into themes supported by evidence gathered from the field. The results are presented in the form of a table, direct quotations, and paraphrases from the respondents.

In addition, secondary data were acquired by reviewing policy reports and articles related to smallholder farming, agro-ecological intensification (AEI), and climate change adaptation. This review played a significant role in shaping the understanding of farming experiences, as well as the exposure and vulnerability of Sub-Saharan Africa to climate change. For the collection of field data, three native speakers of Dagaare, the dialect spoken by the research participants and farmer households in the study communities, provided assistance. The field data was collected in December 2020 and analyzed in conjunction with the key themes of the study. Respecting ethical considerations, informed consent was diligently sought from the respondents at two levels. Firstly, written letters were sent to community leaders (Assembly members and Chiefs) to seek permission for community entry, as they hold decision-making roles. Secondly, informed consent was obtained during interactions with the respondents. The informed consent statement was read and explained to uneducated respondents before they signed it, ensuring their understanding and assuring them of the confidentiality of their information. Participation in the research was voluntary, and respondents had the option to decline participation if they felt uncomfortable with the questioning. The data collection instrument was thoroughly reviewed following protocols and adhering to rules and regulations regarding confidentiality and privacy of the respondents.

4 Results

4.1 Soil and water management practices of smallholder farmers

As mentioned earlier, the participants in the focus group discussions (FGDs) consisted primarily of farmers within the age range of 22 to 40 years, followed by those aged 41 to 59 years, and finally those aged 60 years and above. The soil and water management practices of smallholder farmers were observed from three specific farmer households with considerable expertise in farming. These households, referred to as Zuuro, Chaara, and Challan households (dummy names), possessed more than 25 years of farming experience in their respective communities. The ages of the household heads were 50 years, 55 years, and 74 years, respectively.

4.1.1 Case 1: soil and water management practices of Zuuro’s household

Zuuro, a resident of Ko (Nandom) in the Upper West Region of Ghana, has accumulated 65 years of farming experience at the age of 75. Both he and his wife, Yaale, have received a basic education and lived in a household of 10 members, consisting of four males and six females. However, only six family members were actively involved in farming. Zuuro cultivated food crops in various areas, including the compound field, valley field, and garden. Reflecting on his experiences, Mr. Zuuro described how his family's farmland had gradually decreased over the years, transitioning from extensive farming to intensified methods to adapt to climate-related challenges such as unpredictable rainfall, land degradation, desertification, and soil infertility. Presently, their production mainly took place within the confines of their compound, unlike in the past when it extended to larger areas worked by their fathers and grandfathers. To address these climate stressors, the household had taken measures to manage soil and water. They prepared and utilized compost (refer to Fig. 2) and manure for their compound farm. Compost was prepared by depositing a combination of solid and liquid waste, including dirty water, ashes, and crop residues such as groundnuts, Bambara nuts, and beans, into open pits. The household consistently utilized compost and manure to restore the fertility of their farmlands, aiming to facilitate crop growth. They revealed that these practices had been regularly carried out based on the expertise passed down through generations in soil and water management. By adopting intensive farming techniques, the household managed to apply compost to their farmlands more easily. In order to conserve water and prevent soil erosion on their farmlands, the household constructed ridges and bunds around the field to mitigate excessive runoff from the upland’s areas.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Source: Fieldwork 2020

The compost preparation process.

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The household engaged in Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) as part of their farming practices, actively preserving and nurturing tree species on their farmlands. They primarily focused on conserving Ebony, Shea, and Dawadawa trees due to their significant social and economic value. The household believed that the trees' leaf shedding and the droppings of birds and animals acted as natural fertilizers for the soil. However, it was observed that different farmlands received varying treatments. The household shared that valley fields were comparatively more fertile than upland fields. As a result, they applied minimal compost to the valley fields where yams were cultivated, in contrast to the upland fields. The compost application took place prior to mounds formation. Mixed cropping was the predominant farming method in the valley farms. The household cultivated a variety of crops on the mounds, including yams, maize, potatoes, aerial yams, and rice. The household achieved soil and water conservation benefits through mixed cropping. The combined cultivation of potatoes, yams, and other crops helped conserve soil moisture and reduced erosion, facilitated by the spreading of potato and yam leaves around the mounds. Similarly, the household implemented ridge development as a means to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion in the valley fields. To maintain soil fertility in the garden, the household relied on the application of manure. Due to the rapid decline in soil fertility caused by continuous cultivation each season, the household found it necessary to apply manure during the dry season to support vegetable cultivation. In preparation for this, the household created sunken beds and applied mulch to retain moisture in the soil. During dry season gardening, they also mulched the beds with dry grasses. This practice aimed to preserve soil moisture levels and enhance soil fertility through the decomposition of the grasses.

4.1.2 Case 2: soil and water management practices of Chaara’s household

Mr. Chaara, 55 years, and his wife, 45 years, both lived in Tanchara, a community in the Lawra Municipality of the Upper West Region, Ghana. Mr. Chaara attained a basic level of education, but his wife had no formal education. The household had 30 years of farming experience. In addition to their farm work, his wife was a fashion designer. Of the eight household members, only two worked on the farm. The household undertook measures towards adapting their production to climate change manifesting in the gradual shift from extensification to intensification agriculture over the decades. Mr. Chaara’s household prepared compost and manure to sustain the fertility of the soil in their farmlands.

The household utilized a combination of compost, manure (derived from livestock and poultry), and inorganic fertilizers to nourish their cereal crops. In seasons when compost and manure were scarce, they resorted to using chemical fertilizers as an alternative. Ridges served as the primary farming method for the household, where they consistently prepared ridges and planted crops to conserve soil moisture. To mitigate soil erosion, the household implemented the construction of trenches (refer to Fig. 3). Additionally, compost application was specifically targeted at valley fields, while burning on farmlands after harvest was restricted. The household employed mixed cropping and crop rotation techniques, combining nitrogen-fixing crops with non-nitrogen-fixing crops, and cultivated yams by preparing ridges. Sunken beds were also created, and dry grasses were used for mulching to enhance soil moisture conservation, particularly during the dry season. To facilitate dry season gardening, the household regularly constructed trenches and ponds to capture and retain runoff water for irrigation purposes.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Source: Fieldwork 2020

Ridges prepared by the household for soil and water conservation.

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4.1.3 Case 3: soil and water management practices of Challa’s household

Mr. Challa was 74 years of age, and married to two women; Menuo, 61, and Faala, 44. The household had 15 people living in Tanchara in the Lawra Municipality, Upper West Region, Ghana. Of the 15 members in the household, only four worked on the household farmland. The remaining household members were enrolled in formal education and showed less interest in farm work. The household undertook diverse soil and water management practices towards climate change adaptation (see Fig. 4); and only cultivated foodstuffs in their compound farms, leaving their farmlands in the outskirt due to their inability to manage larger farm sizes.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Source: Fieldwork 2020

Manure from animals’ droppings.

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The household practiced improving soil fertility on their plot through the use of both manure and chemical fertilizer. They primarily used organic fertilizer (manure) instead of inorganic fertilizer, with more emphasis on manure due to the abundance of livestock on the farm, including pigs, goats, and sheep. The manure was strategically placed in a central location for subsequent spreading throughout the entire farmland. Additionally, the household actively prevented burning of the field after harvest. Soil and fertility management was carried out through mixed cropping techniques, such as beans and millets, sorghum and beans, and Bambara nuts and groundnuts. While the household did not apply compost due to lack of knowledge, they prepared the land by making ridges to support crops’ growth.

4.2 Synthesis of soil and water management practices: from household case studies to community level smallholder farmer narratives

The household case studies revealed how smallholder farmers' practices are connected to AEI and signifies efforts towards adapting food crops production to climate change. Specifically, they employed techniques such as using organic manure, compost, and other agricultural methods. To begin with, the findings indicate that farmer households utilize manure, compost, and crop residues to enhance soil and water conservation. In both farming communities, smallholder farmers collected and applied manure to maintain and enhance soil fertility, enabling agricultural intensification. Additionally, farmers strictly adhered to regulations against burning, while utilizing household waste and animal droppings to enrich the soil. In terms of agro-ecological intensification practices, farmers easily conveyed manure to their nearby farmlands. However, smallholder farmers face challenges in accessing manure due to a decrease in livestock rearing, resulting in only a limited number of households applying manure to their fields.

As revealed … I am applying manure on my farm, but I am not able to get enough because I do not have many animals. The cost of chemical fertilizer is also expensive to come by. I would have wished to apply organic fertilizer like compost only, but I do not have enough knowledge in making it... (Male farmer, KII, Ko-13th December 2020).

Nevertheless, the majority of smallholder farmers opted to supplement manure with compost due to its restricted availability. Farmer households consistently produced compost and administered it to their farmlands. As previously mentioned, farmers created compost by utilizing crop residue and household waste. They collected and transported leftover food crop stalks from their fields to their residences as a compost ingredient.

… in my home fields, I usually use manure from animals and compost which I prepare on my own using crop residues and waste materials. The compost can remain in the soil for more than one year. I usually get a higher yield the following year than the first year of application. The problems associated with these methods are; getting animal dropping is scarce, especially if the farmer is not having many animals. Another challenge is that making compost from crop residue is tiresome due to the continuous watering to facilitate the rapid decomposition of the materials… (A Male Informant, KII, Tanchara, 12th December 2020).

Based on the KIIs, farmers revealed that they used compost in both upland and valley fields. In both farming communities, farmers obtained knowledge and skills from their fathers and through field training exercises organized by NGOs and AEOs, both in the past and present. Farmer households themselves prepared compost and applied it to enhance soil fertility in farms situated closer to their homes. Smallholder farmers further supported this practice by managing tree regeneration on their farms. Whenever tractors were employed, farmers spread compost on the farmlands prior to ploughing, ensuring proper integration with the soil. Women were either hired or household labor was utilized to transport the compost to the farmlands. The findings also indicated that smallholder farmers utilized boundary bunds, mulching, and ridging techniques to promote soil and water conservation for crop production. Bunds were constructed to raise beds, while ridging was employed to prevent soil erosion and retain water in the soil. During ridge preparation, farmers buried crop stalks beneath the surface to decompose and nourish the soil. Farmers also established bunds along the edges of their farmlands to combat soil erosion and prevent flooding by creating pathways for runoff, especially when tractors were used for ploughing. It was observed that smallholder farmer households in both communities consistently implemented bunding and ridging practices. Regardless of the farm size, farmers developed bunds and ridges on their plots. As disclosed by a 45-year-old farmer in Ko,

… I use boundary bunds and tired-ridging to improve water retention on my farms and in a situation where tractor service is used, I make “small- small gutters” on the field to prevent all the water from running out of the field or to cause erosion… (A Male Respondent, KII, Ko-13th December 2020).

Additionally, smallholder farmers constructed mounds in water-logged regions as a measure to mitigate erosion. The decision to create mounds was influenced by the specific crops intended for cultivation. Farmers shared that they elevated beds significantly when growing groundnuts in water-logged areas. Farmers implemented mulching techniques by using dry grasses to enhance water retention. During the FGDs, farmers emphasized the importance of ridges, especially when cultivating Bambara nuts and groundnuts.

…On the valley farms, ridges are used to check soil moisture conservation and erosion. In areas where the land slopes and a tractor service are used, bounds and trenches are used to check erosion. Ridges are necessary when growing crops that do not like much water such as groundnuts and Bambara nuts (A Female Respondent, FGD, Tanchara, 10th December 2020).

Farmers encountered challenges during the initial year of production, but found it easier to rebuild old boundary bunds in subsequent years. However, developing boundary bunds was not feasible on larger farms. The findings demonstrated that farmers employed specific agronomic practices, including cover cropping, mixed cropping, and crop rotation, to promote soil and water conservation throughout generations of accumulated knowledge and experience. Smallholder farmers implemented diverse cropping systems, encompassing cover crops, mixed cropping, and crop rotations, as effective methods for soil and water conservation. Within smallholder farmer households, cover cropping and mixed cropping were commonly practiced to protect and preserve the soil. Farmers cultivated cover crops not only for economic benefits but also to minimize water runoff from their farmlands. Farmers revealed that spraying aerial yams and yams around mounds helped prevent evaporation and retained soil moisture. In the case of mixed cropping, smallholder farmers frequently developed mounds for cultivating a variety of crops such as yam (Dioscorea spp), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), aerial yam (Dioscorea bulbifera), maize (Zea mays), and occasionally okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) was also adopted by farmers as an agroecological intensification strategy, effectively controlling erosion while preserving moisture and fertility. Crop rotation was practiced in compound, valley, and smaller plot sizes. According to the discussions, rotating non-nitrogen-fixing crops with nitrogen-fixing crops contributed to soil moisture conservation. Consequently, farmers implemented rotations that involved alternating legumes with cereal crops.

Additionally, the findings suggest that smallholder farmers are reducing the sizes of their farms while intensifying soil management practices, which align with AEI principles. As of now, the extensive cultivation of bush farms, which was prevalent in the past, has been entirely abandoned by farmers. Food crop cultivation is now limited to valley farms, compound farms, and gardens. However, the expanding residential development driven by population growth poses a threat to the size of compound and garden farms. Despite this, farmers can maintain their AEI practices through effective soil and water management (Table 1).

Table 1 Smallholder farmers' soil and water management practices
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5 Discussion

The study specifically examines the soil and water management practices of smallholder farmers as part of their strategy for adapting food crop farming to climate change. Based on the results, we argue that these practices align with the concept of integrated soil, water, and nutrients management (ISWNM) [1, 63]. The findings demonstrate farmers' efforts to adapt farming practices to climate change through diverse methods of soil and moisture management and conservation. Smallholder farmers effectively managed soil fertility on their individual farmlands, drawing upon generational experiences and knowledge, as well as through interactions with fellow farmers in their daily farming activities. Their practices in AEI for climate change adaptation primarily focus on soil fertility management, which involved the utilization of organic inputs and fertilizers. While these practices enabled smallholder farmers to sustain their subsistence production, it is uncertain regarding their long-term sustainability, especially considering the recent climatic conditions in the study communities and the depletion of essential resources such as trees, grasses, and livestock. These are central and play a vital role in compost preparations of smallholder farmers [13]. Land degradation and soil health are primarily caused by agriculture. According to the environmental analysis of Ghana, the focus is on smallholder farmers adopting proactive measures for soil nutrient and water management to preserve and enhance soil health and crop production [68]. The strategy promotes the utilization of local agronomic practices available to farmers in conservation agriculture [50]. The introduction of the conservation farming system within the Ghana Agriculture Sector Investment Programme (GASIP) emphasizes the implementation of sustainable land management practices alongside ongoing improvements in crop production [68].

Although not all practices are directly related to AEI, they demonstrate a strong integration of soil and water management practices at various levels in smallholder food crop production. At the farm level, there is an integration of soil management practices such as organic/green practices, agronomic practices like soil fertility management, soil erosion management, and soil moisture conservation. These practices synergistically work to maintain soil structure, restore lost fertility, and ensure continuous production (see Table 1). While some of these practices align with the principles of AEI, others, like the use of chemical fertilizers (a least input approach), deviate from AEI's core values. This indicates that smallholder farmers employ a combination of traditional and modern practices, depending on their circumstances and resource availability. This reiterates previous studies that highlighted the diverse practices adopted by smallholder farmers to adapt food crop production to climate change [28]. The variations in these practices across farms suggest that soil management practices and knowledge are not fixed but rather dynamic, shaped by local production conditions necessary for increasing crop production [57]. Additionally, both crop ridging and boundary bunds contribute to soil erosion control and moisture conservation methods. However, smallholder farmers primarily rely on mulching as the main soil moisture management method, along with the application of compost and manure for soil fertility management. The use of manure is a common practice among smallholder farmers as it aligns with the principles of AEI, aiming to restore and maintain soil structure for continuous production [5].

The incorporation of organic compounds like manure and crop residue proved beneficial in enhancing the nutrient content of farmlands. These practices were supplemented by the use of inorganic fertilizers, the establishment of drainage channels and sunken beds in gardens, and the adoption of cover cropping for moisture conservation. These findings support the notion that soil management plays a crucial role in preserving soil moisture and adapting crop cultivation to climate change [7]. Moreover, they align with the emerging perspective that agronomic practices, such as integrating crops and livestock, can contribute to effective soil management in intensifying agricultural systems [35]. The combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers observed in smallholder farming practices highlights the significance of chemical fertilizers, manure, and legume cultivation in current AEI practices for enhancing soil fertility. These findings underscore the importance of considering location-specific farmer practices when developing adaptive strategies, particularly for smallholder farmers grappling with climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, it suggests that smallholder farmers integrate soil management practices across different farm types, including compound farms, valley fields, bush farms, and gardens. However, the integration is more prevalent in compound farms, driven by factors like land fragmentation, growing family sizes, and the construction of new residential buildings that have led to reduced sizes of compound farms. Among the various soil management practices employed by smallholder farmers in ecological intensification agriculture, cover cropping and mixed cropping were the most commonly practiced approaches.

Furthermore, the soil and water management practices adopted by smallholder farmers largely align with and reinforce the principles of AEI in smallholder agriculture. The strategies employed by smallholder farmers for nutrient and water management aim to increase yields on limited land sizes without necessarily expanding the plot areas [20, 65]. Apart from nutrient management, there are measures to improve soil moisture and prevent erosion, which contribute to enhancing soil conditions and maximizing crop yields. These practices are likely to continue based on the specific farm type, given that smallholder farmers' activities serve as a "school without walls" in themselves. In general, smallholder farmers' practices involve a combination of organic and agronomic approaches, blending indigenous production techniques with modern methods, which are characteristic of AEI as an approach to adapting smallholder production to climate change [11, 20]. Smallholder farmers are more inclined towards AEI for climate change adaptation due to their deep-rooted connection to traditional farming practices, utilization of local resources including indigenous knowledge, and the affordability compared to chemical fertilizers. Scholars have referred to this blend of indigenous production and modernity as endogenous development (ED), which helps protect soil fertility on farms [66]. The practices encompass the use of manure, compost, boundary ponds, crop ridging, and sometimes chemical fertilizers as complementary measures (see Table 1). The availability of manure and compost within smallholder households, especially on compound farms, and the ease of constructing boundary bunds and ridges in the farmland management process contribute to the adoption of these practices. This reflects an inclination towards using the endogenous development approach in farmland management. This approach combines traditional AEI practices with modern farming techniques to adapt food crop production to climate change. The integration of traditional farming practices is influenced by the limited financial capacity of smallholder farmers to acquire chemical fertilizers and other modern inputs [37, 58]. Moreover, these findings justify observations that ecological intensification agriculture among smallholder farmers involves the use of improved innovations such as organic matter and compost to revive unproductive farmlands [8, 9].

6 Conclusion and implications for development planning

The study attempted to explore the traditional soil and water management practices of smallholder farmers and how they align with evolving concept such as agro-ecological intensification agriculture, and the implications for adapting agriculture to climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Inspired by the everyday farming practices of smallholder farmers, we employed a qualitative narrative research method, in which we conducted household case studies, key informant interviews and focus groups discussions. The study provides a nuanced narrative of the diverse ways in which smallholder farmers managed soil and water to adapt food crop production to climate change. It was found that smallholder farmers engaged in various agronomic practices, including the preparation and application of organic manure and compost, crop ridging, crop rotation, and cover cropping. These practices were implemented across different types of farms, including compound farms, bush farms, valley fields, and gardens. While these practices demonstrate some resemblance to AEI in terms of improving soil fertility, health, and water retention, they were not strictly limited to AEI. Rather, smallholder farmers supplemented their self-initiated AEI practices with the use of inorganic fertilizers to adapt to climate change and sustain food crops’ production. To ensure the holistic adoption of AEI by smallholder farmers and the sustainability of food production, we argue that climate change adaptation planning policy is crucial, recognizing that AEI practices hold potential for soil and water management. However, smallholder farmers were more inclined towards AEI for climate change adaptation due to their strong ties to traditional farming methods, reliance on local resources, indigenous knowledge, and affordability compared to the inorganic fertilizers. Moreover, in developing an appropriate policy response, this paper highlights the importance of an Endogenous Development (ED) approach in promoting AEI within climate change adaptation planning, particularly in rural Ghana and other Sub-Saharan African regions facing similar conditions. The promotion of Integrated Soil and Water Management (ISWNM) through an ED approach to planning is essential for sustaining smallholder agriculture in the face of climate change, emphasizing the utilization of local knowledge systems and resources as the primary factors for reinforcing smallholder farming practices aligned with AEI principles.