1 Introduction

Entrepreneurship is a crucial tool in driving economic prosperity globally. It not only serves as a solution to unemployment but is also fundamental to the sustainability and diversification of nations [19]. In the past decade, there has been a surge of research interest in entrepreneurship education (EE) and entrepreneurial intentions (EI) [22, 74]. Governments, educational practioners, and international philanthropic organizations have been designing policies and investing substantial resources in educational programs with the view that these programs will play a crucial role in encouraging and upskilling individuals to become successful entrepreneurs [32, 94]. Among these interventions, EE has been recognized as a premium strategy, resulting in an exponential increase in the number of EE programs and courses offered at universities [53, 74]. More recently, post-secondary and vocational institutes have begun incorporating EE within their skills-based curricula [59]. EE can be defined as the teaching and learning process focused on identifying business opportunities and developing enterprises [50]. It involves formal pedagogies that enhance not only entrepreneurial knowledge but also the relevant skills and attitudes needed to start and grow business ventures [32, 67].

Previous studies have examined the relationship between EE and EI, but a significant research gap remains. Given that EI represents the initial stage toward venture creation, it has been a focal point for scholars assessing the effectiveness of EE interventions. However, despite extensive research, consensus on the EE-EI relationship is lacking due to mixed findings [11, 50]. One stream of literature reports positive associations between EE and EI, with some studies indicating strong links [22, 28, 50], Otache, [77]) and others showing only marginal effects [11, 85]. These scholars advocate for expanding EE programs. Conversely, other studies have found either insignificant or inverse relationships, with some scholars suggesting a shift in focus from EE to other potent mechanisms for enhancing EI [26, 75, 88]. The theory of planned behavior (TPB has been the backbone framework for much of this research due to its robustness and relevance in predicting intentional behavior [20, 60]. Yet, the application of a longitudinal methodological approach is rare, limiting the ability to draw causal inferences. Scholars have called for longitudinal or time-lagged studies to empirically test the theory’s effectiveness more rigorously and directly [22, 77, 88]). Additionally, there is a paucity of evidence on the effectiveness of EE in shaping EI among non-higher education populations, such as vocational students. Recent calls for more research in these populations [53, 76] highlight this gap. Most studies have focused on university students, leaving critical questions about the effectiveness of EE in preparing vocational students for entrepreneurship unanswered [59]. Vocational institutes traditionally involve skills-based training, such as plumbing, electrical installation, and woodworking. Recently, more vocational institutes have been investing in EE, yet there is a lack of research, creating uncertainty, especially for those required to justify resource allocation for these educational offerings [55, 59]. Furthermore, there is a spatial context research gap. Most studies have predominantly focused on regions such as Asia [22], West Africa [74, 76] and Europe [28, 88], leaving a significant gap in the Caribbean context. More research is needed on entrepreneurship and vocational training in the Caribbean [59]. Generally, there is limited research capacity within Small Island Developing States (SIDS) [66], and entrepreneurship research in SIDS, including the Caribbean, is sparse [79]. Contextual variations significantly influence entrepreneurial processes, making it essential to conduct studies across different regions to address generalizability limitations and ensure the relevance of findings [17, 46].

In view of the aforementioned, Trinidad and Tobago, a twin-island economy in the Caribbean with a diverse and culturally rich population, provides a unique research context [14]. The country has made significant investments in integrating EE across secondary education, tertiary education, and vocational institutions in response to high unemployment rates among graduates [12, 55]. This unemployment issue is exacerbated by the nation’s over-reliance on the oil and gas sector, leading to economic imbalances and vulnerability to global oil price fluctuations [69], World Bank, n.d [100]). Despite the recent emphasis on EE aimed at one of the country’s most vulnerable populations, i.e. unemployed youth at vocational institutes, there is a notable lack of scholarly research assessing the impact of EE on EI in this context [27].

In view of the above, the objective of this study is to apply the TPB to examine changes in EI following exposure to EE at a vocational training institution in Trinidad and Tobago. In this respect, the following research questions are considered in this paper:

RQ1: Does participating in entrepreneurship education improve vocational students’ attitudes towards business, social norms and perceived behavioral control?

RQ2: Does participating in entrepreneurship education improve vocational students’ entrepreneurial intentions?

By addressing these research questions, our study makes several valuable contributions. First, our findings provide new insights and theoretical support for the relationship between EE and EI clarifying previously mixed results in the literature. Secondly, in response to calls for longitudinal studies, we employed a Two-Wave longitudinal approach to assess this relationship, updating the literature with rich findings and new insights into how much change may impact the change in EI. Third, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to examine vocational entrepreneurship students in Trinidad and Tobago relative to EI, adding crucial context-specific insights. These findings fill a significant gap in the literature, offering valuable information for policymakers and vocational institute practitioners to guide future EE initiatives. The remainder of this study is organized as follows: the theoretical framework and hypotheses are presented first, followed by the methods, results, discussion and conclusions.

2 Theoretical underpinning and hypothesis development

2.1 Entrepreneurship education

Education serves as a powerful tool for influencing individuals’ behaviors (Otache, [77]). In line with this notion, entrepreneurship education (EE) plays a crucial role in the development of human capital, equipping individuals with knowledge, skills, and positive attitudes towards self-employment [94, 101]. EE can be defined as a pedagogical program aimed at cultivating entrepreneurial attitudes and personal qualities [18, 29]. Additionally, EE provides students with the necessary skills to embark on successful entrepreneurial ventures [11, 77, 99]). Over the past decade, the prevalence of EE programs has significantly increased in vocational training sites [59] and higher education institutions [22]. These programs may take the form of full-degrees or be integrated as course components, covering topics such as creativity and innovation, business planning, and entrepreneurial finance [12]. The efficacy of EE in terms of whether entrepreneurship can be taught or is an innate trait has been a subject of scholarly debate (Otache, [77]). Consequently, there has been a growing research focus on entrepreneurship educational interventions and their outcomes, particularly in relation to entry into entrepreneurial careers [4, 53]. One of the long-term objectives of EE is to contribute to the development of the business sector and address the issue of unemployment [14, 77], which is a pressing concern for graduates of universities and technical vocational education and training (TVET) institutes [12, 59]. This is achieved by enhancing individuals' business acumen and cultivating pro-entrepreneurial personality traits, such as self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-efficacy [59].

Previous studies have identified small yet positive associations between EE and various indicators of entrepreneurship behavior [11, 50]. However, despite the rigor of these studies, researchers have called for further investigation into this topic [50, 73]. For example, [22] found a strong link between EE and entrepreneurial intentions (EI among higher education students, but questioned whether this association may change over time due to the dynamic nature of behavior. Therefore, there is a need for longitudinal or time-lagged studies to shed light on this relationship [22]. In contrast, other studies have suggested that EE is ineffective in fostering start-up behavior [26, 75], while some have found only weak or indirect links [2, 3, 47, 50]. Consequently, further exploration of this relationship is warranted [60]. Given the mixed findings and gaps in the existing literature, the following section examines the theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework and its constructs in relation to EE, leading to the development of key propositions.

2.2 Theory of planned behavior

Over the past three decades, the TPB has set the foundation for behavioral intentions research across various disciplines, such as management, psychology, health, environmental sciences, and education [21, 44]. It continues to be a popular framework for understanding human decision-making and business aspirations (Chalal & Barbera, 2024). As an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action, it is a cognitive model developed by Ajzen in 1991 [20] based on the premise that an individual’s behavior can be predicted by their intention to perform a particular behavior [6], 20; Mfazi & Elliot, [65]). Not surprisingly, TPB has made its mark in entrepreneurship research and has been extensively used to understand the role of EE in the formation of EI [47, 50, 54, 67]. According to Fretschner [31], TPB suggests that various background factors can influence individuals’ beliefs regarding the consequences, social expectations, and perceived ease of engaging in a behavior. These factors can be categorized into three groups: personal, social, and informational [60]. Notably, both social and informational factors encompass receiving EE [31]. Among the several alternative behavioral models used in past EI research are Shapero’s Entrepreneurial Event Model (EEM) [60] and Social Cognitive Theory [22], TPB is the most dominant model and best-understood theory for understanding the factors influencing EI [27, 60]. TPB is grounded on three antecedents: attitudes toward behavior (ATB (i.e., the extent to which an individual evaluates entrepreneurial behavior positively or negatively, social/subjective norms (SN (i.e., the degree to which an individual perceives their entrepreneurial behavior aligns with the thoughts and opinions of significant persons within their social circles, and perceived behavioral control (PBC (i.e., the level of confidence or belief an individual has in their ability to perform a specific behavior (Chalal & Barbera, 2024, [50, 54]). Through the lens of TPB, it can be inferred that the more positive students’ ATB, SN, and PBC are towards their EI, the more disposed they would be to perform entrepreneurial behavior (Otache, [77, 99]). However, behavioral and decision-making involve complex processes, and the present environment is constantly changing. This has led to growing interest in extending the model beyond its three antecedents. For instance, Lihua [51] found that entrepreneurial situational factors were a valid antecedent in TPB in a study of EI among college students. Additionally, [21] discovered that, in a sample of 310 Indian university students, the crisis effect moderated all antecedents of the model through a dampening effect, except for social norms, which had no effect [21]. Nonetheless, even without model enhancement, TPB’s established reputation and comprehensive nature make it a robust and reliable framework for predicting and analyzing behavioral intentions, making it a preferred choice for studying entrepreneurial intentions.

However, a major gap in the literature is the lack of utilizing longitudinal data to assess the long-term outcomes of educational interventions through the lens of TPB [65]. As popular as TPB is, most studies utilize cross-sectional data and cannot establish causal claims, calling for more longitudinal studies [22]. There are limited and scattered studies on how the TPB constructs change over time (Hagger & Hamton, [38]), especially when exposed to EE (Otache, [77]). Moreover, the model has been overused to predict EI indirectly through its antecedents. Otache [77] stressed the need for studies to examine each antecedent of TPB, i.e., ATB, SN, and PBC, in terms of how they might change with an educational intervention. In an effort to narrow this evidence gap in the literature, the scope of this research is not to modify the original TPB but to add to the literature by examining the differences in each of its constructs over time when subjects are exposed to entrepreneurship education.

2.2.1 Attitude toward behaviour

In this study, we examine the existing literature on attitude toward behavior (ATB), operationalized as attitudes related to entrepreneurial behavior (Mfazi & Elliot, [65]). ATB, in the context of this paper, refers to a person’s positive or negative assessment of entrepreneurship [95]. It pertains to how appealing or favorable an individual finds the prospect of becoming an entrepreneur [20, 50]. Past scholars found evidence to support that EE induced changes in ATB directly (Otache [77]) and consequently intentions, representing an indirect mediated relationship [47], Otache [77]). In the context of TVET institutions, EE has been found to influence students' attitudes and evaluations of business creation, evoking positive [5] or blurry relationships [45]. According to Handayati et al. [39] EE in TVET institutions has a significant impact on students’ ATB creation. Ncube and Matlala [72] also noted that EE in TVET colleges positively enhances students’ mindsets by providing them with a better understanding of entrepreneurial literature, concepts, business creation, and entrepreneurial alertness. Similarly, Ayuo et al. [9] found that EE in vocational institutions has a positive effect on students’ attitudes, resulting in increased desirability and changed behavior. While various studies have highlighted the positive link between EE and attitudes, [45] and Miliou and Ioannou [67] presented a contrasting perspective, suggesting that the impact may be limited and only partially encouraging, without a substantial difference among students. However, [74] found that EE in vocational colleges positively influences students’ perceptions of enterprise engagement and active participation fosters more favorable. Despite these findings, Otache’s [77] study emphasized the need to empirically investigate whether attitudes toward behavior (ATB) change as a result of direct exposure to EE in other contexts. Building on this discussion, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: Exposure to entrepreneurship education (EE) will lead to higher mean scores in attitude towards behavior (ATB) compared to the levels of attitude towards behavior (ATB) prior to the entrepreneurship education (EE) intervention.

2.2.2 Subjective norms

Subjective norm (SN) is an important component of planned behavior [20]. It refers to an individual’s perception of the beliefs and expectations held by influential people or groups regarding their EI [6, 50]. These influential persons include families, friends, spouses, and other social groups [20]. Social pressure can shape an individual’s intention to act. When families, particularly parents, have entrepreneurial backgrounds, their approval of an individual’s decision to pursue entrepreneurship is favorable [49]. This effect is similarly observed when individuals receive EE. Research indicates that EE positively influences the social acceptance and validation of entrepreneurial ventures [2, 77]. Additionally, Li and Islam [52] and Udofia et al. [92] noted that parents in vocational higher education and communities actively support this type of education from an early age to foster the right attitudes, behaviors, and an entrepreneurial culture. Furthermore, literature emphasizes that when students possess knowledge and skills in entrepreneurship, parents tend to be supportive and create an enabling environment for their EI [82]. Cardella et al. [35] in their review paper noted that students who acquire skills and knowledge in their entrepreneurship develop a better understanding of their chosen profession, which in turn strengthens parental belief in their EI. Considering all that, we propose:

H2: Exposure to entrepreneurship education (EE) will lead to higher mean scores in subjective norm (SN) compared to the levels of subjective norm (SN) prior to the entrepreneurship education (EE) intervention.

2.2.3 Perceived behavioral control

Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC) in the context of entrepreneurship refers to individuals’ perceptions of the difficulty or ease of starting a business [50], Otache, [77]). Building on this concept, previous studies indicate that exposure to EE enhances entrepreneurial self-efficacy, which in turn leads to positive EI and favorable business outcomes [50, 54, 59, 77, 78]. Supporting this notion, researchers have found that students in vocational education who receive EE feel more capable of undertaking entrepreneurial tasks and report a greater sense of control over their entrepreneurial behaviors compared to those who do not receive formal EE [25, 52, 67]. Meta-analyses and systematic reviews further consolidate these findings, showing a robust relationship between EE, increased PBC, and EI across different educational contexts and cultures [11, 63]. Despite the generally positive findings, some studies have raised concerns about the variability in the effectiveness of EE programs, pointing to the need for tailored approaches that consider individual and contextual differences [28, 70, 88]. This ongoing debate underscores the importance of continuous evaluation and adaptation of EE programs to maximize their impact on PBC and entrepreneurial success. Based on these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:

H3: Exposure to entrepreneurship education (EE) will lead to higher mean scores in perceived behavioral control (PBC) compared to the levels of perceived behavioral control (PBC) prior to the entrepreneurship education (EE) intervention.

2.2.4 Entrepreneurial intention

The process of entrepreneurship begins when an individual decides to undertake a new venture [14]. This decision is driven by EI, which refers to the willingness of an individual to pursue entrepreneurial activities, such as starting a new business [1]. EI bears considerable significance in entrepreneurial research due to its role as a crucial predictor of entrepreneurial behavior [20]. Scholars contend that EI, especially among students, leads to higher levels of entrepreneurship, thereby reducing unemployment and playing a significant role in the growth of emerging economies [27]. Enhancing EI can be achieved through multiple pathways, with EE recognized by various scholars as having a positive association with EI across different educational levels [26, 50, 59]. By teaching students’ essential entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, EE fosters their motivation and confidence to undertake entrepreneurial ventures. EE is found to be mediated by ATB, SN, PBC when enhancing EI [54, 77]. However, prior research has also found negligible associations between EE and EI [3] or even a dampening effect [75]. Nonetheless, most studies highlight a positive and significant association between EE and EI [60] but more empirical evidence is required to confirm these associations. Considering the preceding discussion, we propose the following the hypotheses:

H4: Exposure to entrepreneurship education (EE) will lead to higher mean scores in entrepreneurial intentions (EI) compared to the entrepreneurial intentions (EI) levels before the entrepreneurship education (EE) intervention.

3 Research model

The purpose of this study is to examine whether exposure to entrepreneurship education is associated with improvements in all constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Each element was measured in two waves. As stated previously, we are hypothesizing that the mean scores for Attitude Toward Behavior, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control will be lower at Time 1 (before EE) and higher at Time 2 (after EE), as depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual framework of hypotheses. 1The arrows between Time1 and Time 2 constructs do not indicate casual relationships. They are intended to illustrate the progression of constructs from Time1 (before EE) to Time2 (after EE)

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4 Methods

4.1 Research design

To assess changes in students’ Attitude Toward Behavior (ATB), Subjective Norms (SN), and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) and entrepreneurial intentions (EI), a two-wave longitudinal design was implemented consistent with methodological approaches recommended by Souitaris et al., [88] for understanding the impact of educational interventions on entrepreneurial outcomes.

4.2 Research site

Using purposive sampling, our inclusion criteria was vocational institutions that offered entrepreneurship education (EE). Purposive sampling was employed in this research to ensure that participants with relevant characteristics—specifically those who had enrolled in the micro-entrepreneurship education program—were included in the study. This method is consistent with Sharma [86] recommendation that purposive sampling is useful for selecting individuals with specific attributes critical to our research objectives. We contacted the management personnel of all registered technical vocational education and training (TVET) institutes in Trinidad and Tobago. Out of five institutions contacted, only one vocational institute met the criteria at the time of the study for which we obtained consent. Just to provide some background into the vocational institution, it was formed to train at-risk and unemployed youths between the ages of 18 and 30 in technical and vocational skills for example hair dressing, electrical installations, welding and plumbing. When compared to other skill-based training organizations in Trinidad and Tobago, this institution stands out as the only one with a dedicated department for entrepreneurial development, offering a 6-month micro-entrepreneurship program to individuals who have completed a skills-based training course. The primary objective of the program is to boost participants’ self-confidence and skills in launching and operating a small business. Despite the program’s objective and the institution’s long-standing history of offering EE, there is limited evidence regarding its effectiveness [12]. This makes the institution an ideal research site to base our study.

4.3 Recruitment of participants and data collection procedures

Given that only one vocational institution offered EE, a full population approach (N = 232) was employed as deriving a sample from this limited population would have resulted in a smaller pool of respondents. Participation was anonymous and voluntary. The EE program was mandatory for participants, mitigating the risk of self-selection bias. Those who did not give consent were excluded from the study. Data collection occurred in two waves. In the first wave—time 1(t1)—printed questionnaires were administered and collected on the first day of the micro-entrepreneurship education programme during the program orientation, before any formal teaching took place. This initial wave yielded 226 responses, of which 221 were deemed usable after removing questionnaires with missing responses, resulting in a response rate of 97.8%. Approximately 6 months later, the second wave of data collection—time 2(t2)—was conducted in the last week of EE program after teaching ended. The same paper-based questionnaire was administered to the same pool of participants from the first wave. Due to attrition and absence, the number of respondents was reduced to 134, and after accounting for missing responses, 128 usable responses were retained, yielding a response rate of 95.5%, and an overall attrition rate of 58%.

4.4 Instrument and measures

This research utilized the Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) developed by Liñán and Chen [54], which has demonstrated high internal reliability with Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.77 to 0.94 across its four constructs: entrepreneurial intentions (6-items), attitudes towards behavior (5-items), subjective norms (3-items), and perceived behavioral control (6-items). As stated earlier, the same instrument was repeated at both t1 and t2. Sample item for ATB include “A career as entrepreneur is attractive for me”. Sample items for SN includes “My close family will approve my decision if I were to start a business”. Sample item for PBC includes “If I tried to start a firm, I would have a high probability of succeeding”. Finally sample item for EI includes “My professional goal is becoming an entrepreneur”. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Additionally, basic demographic information such as age, gender, employment status, highest educational level, and ethnicity were collected. For face and content validity, we engaged three experts in entrepreneurship research to review the survey. Additionally, a pilot test was conducted on a group of students from the same institution to ensure clarity. This preliminary testing allowed us to address any issues with the questionnaire before administering it to the full population. Moreover, The EIQ’s cross-cultural applicability has been validated [40] within the Middle East, but has yet to be assessed within the Caribbean context. With that, it does align with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constructs. For this study’s purpose, assessing reliability of the scales within the Caribbean context is important and has been done to better understand the entrepreneur intention within the Caribbean. The Cronbach's alpha has been assessed at both the pre and post times of data collection (see Table 1), and there is some variation as to the cultural applicability of these measures, however the outcomes are not detrimental to the study overall. Overall subjective norms and attitudes would be different globally, but for the purpose of the study, and for comparable reasons, the items will stay the same as the previous valid scales.

Table 1 Scale reliability within a caribbean context
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4.5 Data analysis

Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Version 29 software. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were utilized in the study. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and means, were calculated to provide a basic summary of the data. When assessing assumption checks, we found that the data did not follow a normal distribution. With that, the non-parametric test the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was employed. We performed the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test to determine whether the difference between the means for the two sets of scores (i.e. the data collected before and after the students’ exposure to EE was the same or different (Tabachnick, [91]). This non-parametric test is suitable for analyzing paired data when the assumptions of parametric tests are not met [71]. Because our data violated the assumption for normal distribution, Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test is a suitable alternative to paired t-tests. These tests were successfully implemented in recent studies examining EE impact on EI [67, 87]. A linear regression was also conducted on the mean difference between the t1 and t2 measures to assess if the EE intervention impacts the predictability of EI overall.

4.6 Results

4.6.1 Respondents profile

Table 2 shows the demographic profile of the respondents, including personal information such as gender, age, marital status, employment status and highest education attained. As per Table 2, the descriptive analysis shows that among a total of 128 respondents, most were female (59.4%), younger than 25 years (61.7%), single (66.4%), unemployed (45%), of African ethnicity (70.3%), and had a secondary school education (90.6%).

Table 2 Sample demographics for vocational students
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4.6.2 Descriptive statistics

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics for the TPB constructs measured at the beginning (Time 1) and end (Time 2) of the EE program. Higher mean scores indicate greater agreement with the statements.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics of TPB constructs
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As shown in Table 3, at t1, participants’ mean scores for all TPB constructs were close to 3.0, indicating a neutral stance. EI had the lowest mean (M = 2.85), suggesting a slight initial disinclination towards starting a business. Conversely, PBC had the highest mean (M = 3.27).

Following the EE program, the mean scores for all constructs increased, indicating stronger agreement among participants. Notably, the largest increase was observed in EI (mean change =  + 1.44), signifying a substantial rise in participants’ willingness to pursue entrepreneurial ventures. ATB creation also showed a notable increase, while PBC demonstrated a more modest rise (See Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Entrepreneurship education intervention impact on TPB constructs

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Table 4 presents the results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test which shows the comparison of the t1 and t2 scores for each construct to determine if there was a significant change after the EE program. Negative ranks indicate t1 scores are greater than t2 scores, positive rank indicate pretest scores less than posttest and ties indicate that both t1 and t2 scores are the same.

Table 4 Wilcoxon signed ranks test
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For EI, 110 participants had higher t2 scores than pre-training levels. Similarly, for ATB creation, 109 participants had higher t2 scores than t1 scores (positive ranks). Regarding SN, 91 participants had higher t2 scores. Finally, for PBC, 73 participants had higher t2 scores. These results indicate that many participants had higher t2 scores compared to t1 scores for all constructs, suggesting a positive change after the EE program, with the greatest change noted in EI.

Table 5 presents the test statistics and effect size for the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and Table 6 presents the results of our hypotheses. The negative z-scores indicate that the t2 scores were significantly higher than the t1 scores for all constructs. The p-values being less than the significance level (0.05) suggest that the changes are statistically significant. Specifically, for ATB creation, the significant negative z-score (− 9.773) and p-value (< 0.001) indicate a statistically significant improvement in attitudes after the EE program (see Table 5). This supports H1 (see Table 6). For PBC, the significant negative z-score (− 2.993) and p-value (0.003) demonstrate a statistically significant enhancement in PBC following the EE program supporting H2 (see Tables 5, 6). For SN, the significant negative z-score (− 8.588) and p-value (< 0.001) suggest a statistically significant positive change in subjective norms regarding entrepreneurship after the training supporting H3 (see Tables 5, 6). For EI, the significant negative z-score (− 9.510) and p-value (< 0.001) indicate a statistically significant increase in EI among the participants after the EE program supporting H4 (see Tables 5, 6).Whilst PBC had a moderate effect size, all other constructs had large effect size greater than − 0.5 with the largest effect noted on ATB creation of − 0.864.

Table 5 Statistics and effect size for wilcoxon signed ranks test
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Table 6 Results of hypotheses
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Finally, to ensure that the EE intervention was effective, we conducted a linear regression analysis on the mean differences between the t1 and t2 measurements of each variable to determine if the TPB constructs predicted EI overall. The variables were computed to assess the mean difference between the two measurements. For example, the mean score from the t1-SN measurement was subtracted from the t2 SN measurement to provide the difference between the two measurements. The smaller the mean difference would indicate that the participant had less change from their t1 to t2 measurement. This analysis will provide insight into how much change may impact EI change overall. The result of the regression indicates that the model explains 77% of the variance, (R2 = 0.77, F (3, 124) = 139.673, p < 0.001). It was found that ATB significantly predicted EI (β1 = − 1.25, p < 0.001), 95% CI [− 1.53, − 0.97], as did SN (β1 = − 0.86, p < 0.001), 95% CI [− 0.95, − 0.77], suggesting that an increase in EI was associated with a decrease in the change of attitudes and norms from the pre assessment. Meaning that less of a change from the t1 to t2 measurement for ATB and SN would predict a larger change in EI from t1 to t2 measurement. PBC also significantly predicted EI (β1 = 0.41, p < 0.001), 95% CI [0.28, 0.53]. Here we see that an increase in PBC lead to an increase in EI, meaning that more of a change from t1 to t2 measurement in PBC was associated with an increase in EI. The regression analysis solidifies the research questions and shows that the EE does have a positive impact on EI.

5 Discussion

The aim of this study was to determine if entrepreneurship education (EE) within a vocational training institute can improve entrepreneurial intentions (EI) among its students. The results of this study suggest that EE within vocational education programs significantly impacts participants' EI, with a clear positive trend observed post-program. This study is in keeping with previous research, showing that the more students are exposed to entrepreneurship, the more inclined they will be to pursue an entrepreneurial venture [32, 55, 58, 74, 94]. Additionally, other studies have shown a statistically significant relationship between EE and entrepreneurial outcomes [7]. This result is particularly encouraging considering that most of the study’s population consists of unemployed youths, and technical vocational education and training (TVET) has been known to be a solution to this crisis [33]. According to Wiger et al. [98] self-employment through small and micro entrepreneurial ventures could potentially provide them with a viable path towards economic empowerment. The substantial increase in EI, as evidenced by the large effect size (r = 0.8), indicates the effectiveness of EE in fostering a more entrepreneurial mindset among vocational students. This finding aligns with previous research highlighting the critical role of EE in enhancing EI [22, 74, 94]. Considering this finding, policymakers must emphasize promoting EE, especially in TVET institutions, since entrepreneurship plays an important social and economic role in a country [61]. EE has been a positive factor in developing an entrepreneurial mindset fostering EI among postsecondary students [90]. More must be done to create the right entrepreneurial environment, especially where students are interested in pursuing entrepreneurship. Although students need to graduate, it is paramount to create the right environment within the schools that would enable them to contribute to the economic and social transformation of Trinidad and Tobago.

The large effect size observed in this study suggests a robust impact of EE at the TVET school we studied [23]. This reinforces the importance of well-structured EE programs in significantly shaping participants' intentions towards entrepreneurship [43]. This is particularly relevant for TVET students, who are often in the process of acquiring specific trade skills and may benefit greatly from an entrepreneurial mindset that can enhance their career prospects and adaptability in the labor market. It should be noted that this finding differs from the research conducted by Kunene [48] in the South African context, where the impact of the institutional EE program on TVET students’ desires to become entrepreneurs was found to be minimal. This highlights the significance of context [98] and emphasizes the need for skills-based training agencies to independently evaluate the effectiveness of their EE programs as opposed to relying solely on published research conducted in different settings which may not provide an accurate assessment of the program’s efficacy. Also, it is essential to generate specific EE programs for various TVET trades or programs, as TVET occupations are skill-based, which provides a natural propensity towards entrepreneurship [55]. TVET institutions must develop proper support systems, such as incubators, to adequately support their student population. Providing this support has been extremely important as we face uncertain and challenging times, and entrepreneurship can be a vehicle for young people to achieve economic enrichment [37].

Furthermore, EE at the institution we studied impact was found beyond EI. The observed improvements in attitudes towards business (ATB) creation, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and social norms (SN) suggest a comprehensive enhancement of participants’ entrepreneurial mindset. These findings are consistent with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) [6] which posits that ATB, PBC and SN are key predictors of entrepreneurial intentions [20, 21, 51]. This theoretical framework is particularly relevant in vocational settings, where students’ beliefs and attitudes towards self-employment and entrepreneurship can be pivotal in shaping their future career paths [1].

The positive shift in ATB implies that participants developed a more favorable outlook on starting and running their own businesses. This result is in keeping with other research, which showed that students who possess positive ATB had greater inclinations toward EI [21, 51]. This change is crucial, as a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship is a strong predictor of entrepreneurial behavior [84]. Also, the increase in perceived behavioral control suggests participants felt more capable of successfully launching and managing entrepreneurial ventures post-EE program. Which is consistent with other scholars who reported PBC as a significant predictor for EI [8, 68], and students with adequate EE exposure and experience possess self-confidence toward EI [22]. This perception of control is critical as it influences both the decision to engage in entrepreneurial activities and the persistence to overcome challenges [15]. In vocational training contexts, enhancing PBC can empower students to leverage their technical skills in entrepreneurial endeavors, thereby broadening their career opportunities. The right competencies should be developed via EE to provide TVET students with the right positive attitude toward entrepreneurship. TVET students are known to engage in experiential learning, which may allow them experiences that may make them more prone to entrepreneurship. Thus, the TVET schools should empower TVET students with adequate EE. Mars et al. [61] have argued that for students to develop an entrepreneurial mindset, they should be offered training in entrepreneurial leadership irrespective of the field of study, college, or university. TVET schools must offer structured EE. School administrators and decision-makers should look into TVET students' education and ensure it aligns with entrepreneurship outcomes. More must be done to train students that can give them the right business skills needed to pursue a venture.

SN, or the perceived support and expectations of significant others, also showed improvement. This suggests that the training program might have influenced participants' perception of entrepreneurship as a socially acceptable and supported career path. SN plays a pivotal role in shaping EI, as individuals are more likely to pursue entrepreneurial activities if they believe that their social environment supports and values such endeavors [54]. Researchers studied SN among post-secondary students, and they found it played a crucial role in EI as SN is an essential tool that leads to EI because people often have expectations from their family and friends, and thus, this influence may cause them to respond positively to entrepreneurship. [20]. For vocational students, who often operate within tight-knit communities or specific industries, positive social norms regarding entrepreneurship can significantly bolster their confidence and motivation to start their own businesses. This finding is in keeping with research in Trinidad and Tobago [59], which showed role models via friends were an essential factor associated with the TVET students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy (which is the belief that someone possesses adequate skills to start a business [64]. This is paramount because if someone strongly believes in their capabilities, they are more likely to engage in entrepreneurship [69]. TVET students place role models through friends as an important part of their entrepreneurial quest. The institutions must tailor entrepreneurial education with this in mind. More emphasis can be placed on group projects, work assignments, and teamwork. In-class delivery should incorporate group work where teams can support each other. Group projects should be encouraged more at TVET institutions as this can build relevant social support. Social capital is an essential facet in entrepreneurial literature as it unlocks insights into social support for entrepreneurs, which is known to be a key influencer in entrepreneurial pursuits (Davidsson & Honig, [24]).

5.1 Theoretical implications

First, it’s important to note that the scope of this research is not to extend or modify the TPB. Rather, the focus was to apply the theory in its original form to better understand EI in a relatively understudied context. In doing so, however, we discovered an interesting finding and brought an original contribution to EE literature. Although our findings confirm the value of TPB in predicting EI of vocational students in Trinidad and Tobago, our study reveal that smaller changes in ATB and SN from Time 1 and Time 2 assessments are associated with a greater increase in EI, suggesting that enduring ATB and SN have a strong influence on EI, while larger changes in PBC are associated with an increase in EI. Although previous longitudinal studies, such as Souitaris et al. [88] and Otache [77], have examined the overall impact of EE on EI over time, they did not use the differences in ATB, SN, and PBC to predict changes in EI, often focusing instead on static predictive models. Our study uniquely highlights how the magnitude of changes in ATB, SN, and PBC after EE differentially predicts the magnitude of change in EI. Additionally, our findings underscore the importance of stability and change in ATB and SN over time, suggesting that enduring attitudes and norms play a critical role in fostering EI. Our findings updated the literature on the theory usefulness in predicting EI and suggest potential implications for refining the understanding of how changes in ATB, SN, and PBC over time might affect EI. This can inform future research and applications of the theory in the EE-EI link.

This research also advances the scholarship on entrepreneurship because most studies of this nature focus on higher education [42, 93, 96] while some studies focus on secondary and primary education [30, 34] there is limited EE research that focus on TVET [59]. Another contribution is the Two-Wave study structure. Many studies center their research exploits on cross-sectional data, which only offer relationships and associations, however, cannot establish causation [89]. Our work provides insights showing the changes in ATB, PBC, SN and EI of vocational students over time. Our results give evidence of EE interventions enhancing EI.

5.2 Practical implications

Our work has imperative ramifications for practitioners, policymakers, educators, and vocational and post-secondary institutions globally, but more specifically, in Trinidad and Tobago as we seek to share ideologies in designing practical and workable solutions to the advancement of EE within institutions. For our practical implications, because we did our study in Trinidad and Tobago, it is important to consider the positive impacts this may have within this environment. Firstly, our work showed students had higher mean scores after the intervention. This is a promising development, and further efforts are necessary to foster an entrepreneurial mindset among students, as innovation is lacking in Trinidad and Tobago [13]. Pedagogical changes should ideally support students in developing positive attitudes toward owning a business. Developing positive self-efficacy is essential in the quest to create positive ATB and PBC. This is significant because TVET is stigmatized even in developed countries [56] and carries a considerable social stigma in Trinidad and Tobago [56]. So, infusing EE in TVET schools can help raise the profile of TVET programs and develop positive ATB because entrepreneurship carries social prestige [41]. Additionally, entrepreneurship is an opportunity for social change  [10]. Others have embraced entrepreneurship to advance themselves socially and economically and eliminate inequalities and social problems [97]. Hence, inviting industry experts and past successful entrepreneurs can help boost present students’ entrepreneurial mindset, thus leading to greater levels of ATB. Secondly, PBC was statistically significant after EE. This indicates that students’ perception of starting a business improves, which is a crucial finding to ascertain. This means curriculum and pedagogical changes must take root within the education system, especially within TVET institutions. Teaching content should be centered on the steps in starting a business. Also, students should be given projects to research what is involved in starting a business. Since TVET students are experiential learners, they should be tasked to start their business by visiting the proper agencies and commencing the procedure for starting their business. Thus, they can get practical knowledge on starting their businesses. Schools should also set up an incubator system, which serves as a support system to guide students in their entrepreneurial quest. These ideas are important for Trinidad and Tobago, especially TVET institutions, because research carried out in TVET institutions showed that 98% of the people surveyed were interested in pursuing entrepreneurship [57]. Thirdly, SN showed statistical significance post-EE. Thus, educators can adopt curriculum changes to foster more group interactions and group projects. Additionally, it would be beneficial for students to have opportunities for both group and individual sessions with their instructor to discuss entrepreneurship. TVET students are focused on SN, which means they are driven by support and social interactions. This is paramount for this study, especially within Trinidad and Tobago, because TVET students are often marginalized [83], and role models like friends and their parents’ education boost their self-efficacy [59]. These interactions can positively guide students into entrepreneurship by fostering positive emotions from these social interactions. Also, curriculum content on role models and social support should be provided, where students can learn content about the significance and the role these individuals play in their entrepreneurial journey.

5.3 Conclusion

This study’s findings highlight the significance of entrepreneurship education (EE) within vocational educational settings for participants' entrepreneurial intentions (EI) and related attitudes. This is important as several scholars and Caribbean educators from several technical vocational education and training (TVET) institutions, both at the secondary and post-secondary levels, have called for EE to be incorporated into TVET schools [12, 36, 55, 80, 81].

A two-wave longitudinal design assessed changes in students’ attitudes toward business (ATB) creation, subjective norms (SN), perceived behavioral control (PBC), and EI. To ascertain these ideas, the authors adopted descriptive and inferential statistics, which helped answer our requestion question and test the research hypotheses. By carrying out these tests, we were able to ascertain valuable insights into our research. The data showed high t2 scores for EI and ATB creation, highlighting that TVET students are interested in pursuing an entrepreneurial path after training. The large effect size underscores the effectiveness of the EE program, suggesting that such interventions are crucial for fostering entrepreneurial mindsets among vocational students. Integrating EE into vocational training can significantly enhance students’ career prospects and adaptability, ultimately contributing to a more dynamic and innovative workforce.

We shared several implications for entrepreneurship policymakers and educators. We proposed a structured approach to TVET training, which requires a collaborative effort from critical decision-makers, as highlighted in previous research on entrepreneurship within TVET schools in Trinidad and Tobago [57, 58]. The need to incorporate support systems for TVET students is crucial if they are to achieve success and contribute to Trinidad and Tobago’s economic system via entrepreneurship. Lastly, SN showed an important aspect of TVET student’s entrepreneurial experience thus there is a need to cater more to the social aspect of students’ lives. The need to incorporate projects, assignments, and tasks that carry a large element of support and guidance from the peers of TVET students is paramount in building their capacity for entrepreneurship.

Future research is of utmost importance. It should continue to explore the long-term effects of EE and identify specific components that are most effective in enhancing EI and behaviors. Future research can be pursued on which TVET programs are more inclined towards entrepreneurship, a crucial area that needs further exploration.

5.4 Limitations and future research

While the present study attempted a full population approach, the generalizability of the findings to other contexts may be limited. This is because the study was conducted at a single vocational institute that offered EE at the time. This institute’s unique characteristics and the EE program it provided may not represent other vocational institutes or EE programs. We encourage researchers to conduct similar studies at multiple vocational institutes to assess consistency across settings. Due to practical constraints, the researchers were unable to include a control group of vocational students from the same population to isolate the treatment effect of the educational intervention. Using a control group would have also helped mitigate unwarranted interpretations from t1 to t2 measurements [62]. However, some research suggests that control groups do not always yield significant differences [16] and logistics may not always be favorable for their inclusion [28]. Finally, although our study departs from the prominence of cross-sectional designs in the literature, our longitudinal approach was simple whereby we measured participants before and after the entrepreneurship education intervention. Longitudinal studies over time with repeated measurements are also recommended to understand the long-term effects of entrepreneurship training and how it may evolve (Otache, [77]). Finally, our research was structured to test the TPB in its original form. A key limitation was the need to keep the printed questionnaire concise, given concerns about response rates from non-academic students. As a result, we focused data collection exclusively on the core TPB constructs to evaluate the theory's applicability in Trinidad and Tobago, where evidence is currently lacking. We echo calls made by scholars such as Chahal et al. [22] and recommend that future research explore potential moderator variables, such as the entrepreneurial environment, when applying the TPB to the relationship between EE and EI. Despite these limitations, our study provides essential findings that are relevant to our population and offers critical ideas worth examining to advance TVET in Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean, and the international education sphere. Future research would consider the development of a SN, ATB, and PBC scale that is culturally relevant to the perceptions that exist within the Caribbean.