Abstract
This study, for the first time, presents the results of activity concentration determinations for 137Cs and 40K in a high number (21 species, 87 composite samples, and 807 fruiting bodies) of mushrooms of the genus Boletus from across Yunnan in 2011–2014 and Sichuan (Boletus tomentipes) using high-resolution high-purity germanium detector. Activity concentrations of 137Cs demonstrated some variability and range from <4.4 to 83 ± 3 Bq kg−1 dry biomass in caps and from <3.8 to 37 ± 3 Bq kg−1 dry biomass in stipes, and of 40K, respectively, from 420 ± 41 to 1300 ± 110 and from 520 ± 61 to 1300 ± 140 Bq kg−1 dry biomass. No significant variations were observed regarding 137Cs and 40K activity concentrations among the same Boletus species from different sampling sites. No activity concentrations from 134Cs were detected in any mushrooms. Internal dose rates estimated were from intake of 1 kg of mushrooms per annum for 137Cs range for species and regions from around <0.0031 to 0.047 ± 0.003 μSv, while those for 40K were from around 0.22 ± 0.04 to 1.2 ± 0.1 μSv. The overall intake of 137Cs was low since low contamination was found in Boletus species.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Introduction
The nuclear weapon detonations in the atmosphere (1945–1980) and two major nuclear power plant accidents in Chernobyl (1986) and in Fukushima (2011) caused radioactive fallout at a global scale but deposition rates, radioactive pollution, and health risk differed for the regions of the world (Haselwandter et al. 1988; Marzo 2014; Steinhauser et al. 2013 and 2014). The long-term residual radioactivity in the affected areas after the nuclear weapons use and nuclear power plant accidents comes largely from radiocaesium (137Cs, half-life 30.05 years, and 134Cs, half-life 2.06 years) aerosol deposited onto soils (Yasunari et al. 2011). The Chernobyl accident not only affected land mostly in the Central and Northern Europe and especially in the Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia (De Cort et al. 1998), but also with health consequences (thyroid cancer development, because of high exposure for radioactive iodine from Chernobyl) in Poland.
Mushrooms are effective in bioconcentration in fruiting bodies of various metallic elements, semimetals, and radionuclides absorbed by mycelium from soil substrata (Baeza et al. 2005; Falandysz et al. 2007, 2011, 2014; Kalač 2001; Kojta and Falandysz 2016; Marzano et al. 2001), and many species can be highly contaminated by accumulated 137Cs which was deposited onto forests localized close or more distantly from the source of emission (Grodzinskaya et al. 2003, 2013).
The number of the pre-Chernobyl data published on activity concentrations of 137Cs accumulated in mushrooms because of the nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere is a few. Mushrooms such as Cortinarius armillatus, Cortinarius caperatus, Paxillus involutus, Lactarius rufus, Suillus grevillei, Cantharellus cibarius, and Amanita rubescens collected from the western Austria in 3 to 5 months after the Chernobyl accident showed 137Cs in fruiting bodies in activity concentrations from 3-fold to 4.8-fold greater than before the catastrophe (Haselwandter et al. 1988). Also, a pre-Chernobyl data on concentration activity of 137Cs in mushrooms are available for the territory of Poland. A valued Boletus edulis from the pre-Chernobyl collection (1984 and 1985) from a place located circa 650 km west of the feral nuclear power plant site in Poland showed 137Cs in fruit bodies at 95–104 Bq kg−1 dry biomass (db), while contamination was 2.5-fold to 4-fold greater in 1986–1988 (Bem et al. 1990).
Mushrooms differ in accumulation capacity of 137Cs in fruiting bodies, and this feature is highly determined by the species-specific status of the stabile caesium (133Cs) on one side and a degree of environmental (litter and/or soil horizons) pollution with 137Cs on the other, and what results also in a positive correlation between the activity concentrations in forest topsoil and mushrooms (Falandysz and Borovička 2013; Falandysz et al. 2015a; Yoshida and Muramatsu 1998; Yoshida et al. 2000, 2004).
The Chernobyl accident caused substantial contamination with radiocaesium of wild-growing mushrooms in the Central and Northern Europe and especially in the Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia (Falandysz et al. 2015a; Grodzinskaya et al. 2003 and 2013; Smith et al. 1993; Taira et al. 2011). However, locally or regionally, also mushrooms form some other locations in Europe were highly affected (Mietelski et al. 2010; Strandberg 2004; Zalewska et al. 2016), while in many other sites were much less or little affected (Daillant et al. 2013; García et al. 2015; Karadeniz and Yaprak 2010; Rakić et al. 2014; Turhan et al. 2007). From the toxicological point of view, some radioactive compounds other than radiocaesium accumulated by fungi in fruiting bodies can also highly matter, but the number of published data is much less (Kirchner and Daillant 1998; Saniewski et al. 2016; Strumińska-Patulska et al. 2016).
The Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident had little effect in China (Pang et al. 1989; Wang et al. 1998). Also, the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant accident had little if any effect in China (Liu et al. 2013; Povinec et al. 2013; Shuai et al. 2016; Wan et al. 2014). Nevertheless, an internationally available data on radioactive fallout from the nuclear weapons tests and nuclear plants accidents are highly limited from China so far. Also, no data inventory on the surface contamination with 134/137Cs (Bq per m2) is available from the Yunnan province yet.
In Yunnan is a high biodiversity of mushrooms of the genus Boletus and many are unique for this region of the world (Wu et al. 2016). Yunnan Province is the major supplier of wild-growing fungi in mainland China and for export. Also, it is a great tradition for foraging and eating fungi there. In Yunnan, as reported for the individuals from over 2 million people of the Liangshan Yi nationality, an annual rate of wild-grown fungi consumption could locally even exceed 20–24 kg per capita (Zhang et al. 2010). This study aimed to provide and discuss information on radiocaesium (134/137Cs) and radioactive potassium (40K) accumulated and distributed in fruiting bodies by 22 species of fungi of the genus Boletus, which are highly valued organic food (Frankowska et al. 2010) and which are widely foraged in Yunnan of China. We aimed also to examine if there are variations in the nuclide activity among the individuals of the same species collected from the spatially distantly distributed sites and between fruit bodies of different Boletus species which are grown in the same area in Yunnan.
Materials and methods
In order to investigate fungi of the genus Boletus representative of Yunnan, we chose 21 species representing widely distributed locations and collected several individuals from a species in a given location, which were combined into composite samples (Fig. 1). Fungi collected in July to September 2011–2014 in Yunnan and in July to August 2012 in Sichuan in this study include Boletus aereus Fr. ex Bull., Boletus auripes Peck, Boletus bicolor Peck, Boletus brunneissimus Chiu, Boletus calopus Fr., B. edulis Fr., Boletus erythropus Fr., Boletus ferrugineus Schaeff, Boletus fulvus Peck, Boletus griseus Frost., Boletus impolitus Fr., Boletus luridus Fr., Boletus magnificus Chiu., Boletus obscureumbrinus Hongo, Boletus pallidus Frost., Boletus purpureus Fr. (current name Imperator rhodopurpureus Smotl.), common name purple bolete), Boletus reticuloceps M. Zang, M.S. Yuan & M.Q. Gong Q.B. Wang & Y.J. Yao, Boletus sinicus W.F. Chiu, Boletus speciosus Frost., Boletus tomentipes Earle, and Boletus umbriniporus Hongo (Index Fungorum, 2016; Mao 2009).
Each fruit body was separated into cap (with skin) and stipe in order to examine the distribution of 137Cs and 40K between its morphological parts. The collected fruit bodies were in good “edible” body condition (not injured by insects) and well developed. The individual cap and stipe samples were sliced into pieces using a disposable plastic knife and pooled for each site (n = 5 to 21 individuals per pool)—with composite samples representing each species, sampling location, and time of collection (Table 1). Subsequently, the fungal samples were dried in plastic shelves of a commercial electric dryer (model: Ultra FD1000 dehydrator, Ezidri, Australia) at 65 °C to constant mass. Dried fungal materials were pulverized in a porcelain mortar(s) using a porcelain pestle(s) that was cleaned using a laboratory brush, deionized water, and detergent and further rinsed with distilled water and dried in an electrically heated laboratory dryer at 105 °C. The samples were kept in sealed polyethylene bags under dry conditions. The pooled fungal materials mass obtained and used in this study was in the range 25∼200 g dry biomass—it differed per species, morphological part, and localization, because of a different size and quantity of the fruiting bodies available per sample.
Activity concentrations of 137Cs and 40K were determined using a gamma spectrometer with coaxial HPGe detector with a relative efficiency of 18% and a resolution of 1.9 keV at 1.332 MeV (with associated electronics) (Falandysz et al. 2016; Zalewska and Saniewski 2011). The equipment was calibrated using a standard mixture of gamma-emitting isotopes of different elements, and the method was fully validated. The reference solution, “Standard solution of gamma emitting isotopes, code BW/Z-62/27/07” produced by IBJ-Świerk near Otwock in Poland, was used for preparing reference samples for the equipment calibration. The same geometry of cylindrical dishes with 40 mm diameter (as applied for environmental samples) was used for reference samples during equipment calibration. Also calculated were the values of the 137Cs and 40K cap to stipe concentration quotients (index Qc/s).
The laboratory involved was subjected to routine checks to ensure high standards of analytical quality and analytical control and participated successfully in the inter-comparison exercises organized by IAEA-MEL Monaco (IAEA-414, Irish and North Sea Fish) to confirm the reliability and accuracy of the method (Zalewska and Saniewski 2011). Repeated analysis gave values of 137Cs, 5.06 ± 0.64 Bq kg−1 db, and 40K, 474.5 ± 19.3 Bq kg−1 db, while the estimated target values were equal to 5.18 ± 0.10 Bq kg−1 db for 137Cs and 481 ± 16 Bq kg−1 db for 40K. In the gamma spectrometry measurements, the limit of quantification was calculated using GENIE 2000 as a minimum detectable activity (MDA) as defined by Curie (1968). All numerical data gained were recalculated for dehydrated fungal material (at 105 °C), and all data were decay corrected back to the time of sampling.
Results and discussion
137Cs activity concentrations in Boletus species
The activity concentrations of 137Cs in fungi of the genus Boletus species from the Yunnan and Sichuan showed low contamination: for the caps, total range was between <3.3 and 36 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db and for stipes was between <2.4 and 20 ± 1 Bq kg−1 db (Table 1). No activity from 134Cs was detected at the time of measurements (summer 2015) in any sample in this study. The Boletus fungi usually showed detectable activity concentrations, but in the case of a several collected composite samples of different species, the 137 Cs activity concentrations were below the limit of determination: in detail, in seven composite samples of the caps (<3.3–<5.2 Bq kg−1 db) and 15 samples of the stipes (<2.6–5.0 Bq kg−1 db).
The median value of the activity concentrations of 137Cs in the caps for a whole collection of Boletus spp. (87 composite samples with data) was at 7.7 Bq kg−1 db, and the arithmetic mean and standard error were at 8.7 ± 5.1 Bq kg−1 db [if activity concentration in a sample was below the value of the method limit of detection (LOD), a half of this value was used in calculations]. The median value of the activity concentration of 137Cs in the stipes for a whole collection of Boletus spp. (85 composite with data) was at 7.2 Bq kg−1 db, and the arithmetic mean and standard error were at 7.1 ± 3.2 Bq kg−1 db. The median value of the index QC/S for 137Cs in fruit bodies of all the Boletus fungi with data (64 composite samples) was 1.1 (the arithmetic mean and standard error values were at 1.3 ± 0.5 and range 0.42–3.6).
The activity concentrations of 137Cs in the composite samples of a particular species of the Boletus fungi with data for more than three sample sets were roughly similar, e.g., in the caps, the ranges were as follows: <4.5–14 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db for B. edulis, <3.3–15 ± 1 Bq kg−1 db for B. ferrugineus, <4.8–15 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db for B. griseus, <5.2–8.8 ± 1.6 Bq kg−1 db for B. magnificus, 6.2 ± 1.7–12 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db for B. purpureus, <5.5–21 ± 3 Bq kg−1 db for B. speciosus, <4.4–14 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db for B. tomentipes, and 6.4 ± 1.2–14 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db for B. umbriniporus.
Fungus B. luridus, for which data were available from only three locations, showed maximal value of the activity concentrations of 137Cs determined in the caps in this study, and range was 7.4 ± 1.7–36 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db (Table 1). Is the question of matter if this can be related to differences in soil pollution with 137Cs, which is doubtful because of a narrow range and low activity concentrations for almost all sample sets (Table 1) or more to better (species-specific or site-specific) bioconcentration potential of 137Cs by B. luridus than other fungi examined? A major reason for a species-specific difference in susceptibility of fungi to contamination with radiocaesium can be related to the status of stable Cs (133Cs). Certain species of fungi are richer in stable Cs than other species under the same field conditions, and uptake of 137Cs follows well an uptake of 133Cs (Falandysz and Borovička 2013; Yoshida et al. 2000, 2004).
The composite sample of B. luridus from the Shilin site in the Kunming region, which showed activity concentration of 137Cs in the caps at 36 ± 2 Bq kg−1 db and in the stipes at 10 ± 1 Bq kg−1 db, contained the total Cs (including 137Cs) in the caps at 160 mg kg−1 db and in the stipes at 38 mg kg−1 db (Saba et al. 2016). Two other samples of B. luridus, e.g., from the Midou and Yuanmou sites, contained 137Cs in the caps and stipes respectively at 7.4–9.9 and 9.7–11 Bq kg−1 db, while total Cs in the caps was at 0.65–3.0 mg kg−1 db and in the stipes 0.37–2.4 mg kg−1 db. A positive relationship between stable 133Cs and radioactive 137Cs in examined B. luridus seems possible.
As mentioned earlier, there are a few data published on the activity concentrations of 134Cs and 137Cs in fungi foraged in Yunnan and no data for other regions of the mainland China. In one of our previous studies, it was shown that the activity concentrations of 137Cs in sclerotia of the fungus Wolfiporia extensa collected across Yunnan were low, i.e., in range <1.4 to 7.2 ± 1.1 Bq kg−1 db (134Cs was undetected) (Wang et al. 2015). Similarly, also, the pantropical fungus Macrocybe gigantea foraged in the wild or cultivated in Yunnan showed low radioactivity of the radiocaesium isotopes—134Cs was undetected and 137Cs activity concentrations were in the range from <7.0 to 6.8 ± 1.3 Bq kg−1 db in the caps and from <4.8 to 7.9 ± 1.7 Bq kg−1 db in the stipes (Falandysz et al. 2015b). In a recent paper available in Chinese, data on the activity concentrations of 137Cs and 40K in some fungi collected from the Mangshi area in southwestern region of Yunnan in 2012–2013 were reported. They, like species in our study, showed low activity concentrations of 137Cs. In details, they contained 137Cs (adapted data) at 3.8 ± 0.4 Bq kg−1 db in B. aereus, from 0.73 ± 0.22 to 1.9 ± 0.3 Bq kg−1 db in B. brunneissimus, from 0.63 ± 0.20 to 6.5 ± 0.6 Bq kg−1 db in B. edulis and at 1.8 ± 0.3 Bq kg−1 db in B. obscureumbrinus (Tuo et al. 2014).
40K activity concentrations in Boletus species
Potassium (K) is an important macronutrient for fungi and is the most abundant metallic element in the fruiting bodies. Natural K (39,40,41K) contains the long-lived radioactive (40K) at 0.012%. The median value of 40K activity concentration in the caps for a whole collection of Boletus spp. (83 composite samples with data) was at 1300 Bq kg−1 db, and the arithmetic mean and standard error were at 1300 ± 200 Bq kg−1 db and range was 420–1900 Bq kg−1 db. The stipes were poorer in 40K than the caps, the median value for a whole collection (81 composite samples with data) was 960 Bq kg−1 db, and the arithmetic mean and standard error were at 1000 ± 260 Bq kg−1 db and range was 240–1800 Bq kg−1 db. Consequently, the median value of the index QC/S for 40K in fungi of the genus Boletus in this study (75 composite samples with data) was at 1.2 (the arithmetic mean and standard error values were 1.3 ± 0.3 and range 0.44–4.2).
In our studies of fungi from China, the nuclide 40K was at low activity concentrations in sclerotia of W. extensa (range between <50 and <83 Bq kg−1 db), while in M. gigantea, the caps range from 820 ± 150 to 3300 ± 260 Bq kg−1 db and the stipes from 770 ± 74 to 1200 ± 100 Bq kg−1 db (Falandysz et al. 2015b; Wang et al. 2015). 40K in B. aereus, B. brunneissimus, B. edulis, and B. obscureumbrinus from the Mangshi region in Yunnan in the study by Tuo et al. (2014) was in range 610 ± 4s1–1100 ± 71 Bq kg−1 db, in which values agree with data from present study (Table 1).
Probable intake and effective radiation doses from 137Cs and 40K
To evaluate a possible risk arising from the radioactivity for the inhabitants of the Yunnan region eating mushrooms, the annual effective dose from internal exposure to 137Cs and 40K from fungal meals has been assessed (Table 2). Blanching (boiling for a short time) or frying of mushrooms can decrease content of 137Cs (especially blanching) in a cooked product (Skibniewska and Smoczyński 1999; Steinhauser and Steinhauser 2016). When traditionally cooking mushrooms using a wok pan, the juice generated is not discarded. Hence, we assumed that no leaching of 137Cs and 40K out of a mushroom meal take place when traditionally cooking the Boletus fungi using a wok pan in Yunnan.
The annual effective radiation dose figures due to 137Cs intake with 1 kg of fresh mushrooms per annum depending on species and location range for 137Cs from around <0.0031 to 0.047 ± 0.003 μSv, while those for 40K from around 0.22 ± 0.04 to 1.2 ± 0.1 μSv (Table 2). If considering a maximal figure for mushrooms consumption by some locals in Sichuan and Yunnan with high intake (up to around 30 kg fresh biomass per annum), the figures above have to be multiplied by 20–30, i.e., can be for 137Cs from around 0.062–0.093 to 0.94–1.4 μSv, while those for 40K from around 4.4–6.6 to 24 to 36 μSv. They both figures obtained on the annual effective radiation dose for 137Cs and 40K contained in mushrooms of the genus Boletus in Sichuan and Yunnan, and summed up are very low. Considered a potential, the effective dose from the 40K contained in the Boletus mushrooms from the Yunnan was an order of magnitude greater than from 137Cs.
Summing up, the activity concentrations of 137Cs in mushrooms of the genus Boletus foraged in 2011–2014 in the Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces of China are very low and mushroom meals contribute there at very low rate to the annual effective radiation dose for individuals. The activity concentrations of 137Cs in mushrooms of the genus Boletus in the Sichuan and Yunnan are around 100-fold below activity concentrations of 40K. Considered a potential, the effective dose from the 137Cs and 40K, separately and combined, contained in the Boletus mushrooms from the Yunnan, was very low and it was an order of magnitude greater from the natural nuclide 40K than 137Cs.
References
Baeza A, Guillén J, Bernedo JM (2005) Soil-fungi transfer coefficients: importance of the location of mycelium in soil and of the differential availability of radionuclides in soil fractions. J Environ Rad 81:89–106
Bem H, Lasota W, Kuśmierek E, Witusik M (1990) Accumulation of 137Cs by mushrooms from Rogoźno area of Poland over the period 1984-1988. J Radioanal Nucl Chem Lett 145:39–46
Curie LA (1968) Limits for qualitative detection and quantitative determination. Application to radiochemistry. Anal Chem 40:586–593
Daillant O, Boilley D, Josset M, Hettwig B, Fischer HW (2013) Evolution of radiocaesium contamination in mushrooms and influence of treatment after collection. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 297:437–441
De Cort M, Dubois G, Fridman SD, Germenchuk MG, Izrael YA, Janssens A, Jones AR, Kelly GN, Kvasnikova EV, Matvenko II, Nazarov IM, Pokumeiko YM, Sitak VA, Stukin ED, Tabuchny LY, Tsaturov YS, Avdyushin SI (1998) Atlas of caesium deposition on Europe after the Chernobyl accident. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 92:828–3140-X
Falandysz J, Borovička J (2013) Macro and trace mineral constituents and radionuclides in mushrooms: health benefits and risks. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97:477–501
Falandysz J, Frankowska A, Mazur A (2007) Mercury and its bioconcentration factors in King Bolete (Boletus edulis) Bull. Fr J Environ Sci Health Part A 42:2089–2095
Falandysz J, Frankowska A, Jarzyńska G, Dryżałowska A, Kojta AK, Zhang D (2011) Survey on composition and bioconcentration potential of 12 metallic elements in King Bolete (Boletus edulis) mushroom that emerged at 11 spatially distant sites. J Environ Sci Health B 46:231–246
Falandysz J, Saba M, Dryżałowska A, Wang J, Zhang D (2014) Mercury in the fairy-ring of Gymnopus erythropus (Pers.) and Marasmius dryophilus (Bull.) P. Karst. mushrooms from the Gongga Mountain, Eastern Tibetan Plateau. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 104:18–22
Falandysz J, Zalewska T, Krasińska G, Apanel A, Wang Y, Pankavec S (2015a) Evaluation of the radioactive contamination in fungi genus Boletus in the region of Europe and Yunnan Province in China. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99:8217–8224
Falandysz J, Zhang J, Zalewska T, Apanel A, Wang Y, Wiejak A (2015b) Distribution and possible dietary intake of radioactive 137Cs, 40K and 226Ra with the pantropical mushroom Macrocybe gigantea in SW China. J Environ Sci Health Part A 50:941–945
Falandysz J, Zalewska T, Apanel A, Drewnowska N, Kluza K (2016) Evaluation of the activity concentrations of 137Cs and 40K in some Chanterelle mushrooms from Poland and China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:20039–20048
Frankowska A, Ziółkowska J, Bielawski L, Falandysz J (2010) Profile and bioconcentration of minerals by King Bolete (Boletus edulis) from the Płocka Dale in Poland. Food Addit Contam B 3:1–6
García MA, Alonso J, Melgar MJ (2015) Radiocaesium activity concentrations in macrofungi from Galicia (NW Spain): influence of environmental and genetic factors. Ecotox Environ Saf 115:152–158
Grodzinskaya B, Haselwandter W (2003) Radiocesium contamination of wild-growing medicinal mushrooms in Ukraine. Intern J Medicinal Mushrooms 5:61–86
Grodzinskaya AA, Syrchin SA, Kuchma ND, Wasser SP (2013) Macromycetes accumulative activity in radionuclide contamination conditions of the Ukraine territory. In: Mycobiota of Ukrainian Polesie: consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. Kiev: Naukova dumka (In Russian) Part 6. - P.217–260, 368–373
Haselwandter K, Berreck M, Brunner P (1988) Fungi as bioindicators of radiocaesium contamination: pre- and post-Chernobyl activities. Trans Br Mycol Soc 90:171–174
Kalač P (2001) A review of edible mushroom radioactivity. Food Chem 75:29–35
Karadeniz Ö, Yaprak G (2010) 137Cs, 40K, alkali-alkaline earth element and heavy metal concentrations in wild mushrooms from Turkey. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 285:611–619
Kirchner G, Daillant O (1998) Accumulation of 210Pb, 226Ra and radioactive cesium by fungi. Sci Total Environ 222:63–70
Kojta AK, Falandysz J (2016) Soil-to-mushroom transfer and diversity in total mercury content in two edible Laccaria mushrooms. Environ Earth Sci 75(18):1264
Liu L-B, Wu S, Cao J-J, Xie F, Shi Q-L, Zhang C-Y, Tang H-B, He X-B, Zhang R, Chen L-Y, Wei G-Y, Zhang Z-H, Zhang J-M, Dang H-J (2013) Monitoring of atmospheric radionuclides from the Fukushima nuclear accident and assessing their impact on Xi’an, China. Chin Sci Bull 58:1585–1591
Mao X (2009) Macromycetes of China. Science Press, Beijing.
Marzano FN, Bracchi PG, Pizzetti P (2001) Radioactive and conventional pollutants accumulated by edible mushrooms (Boletus sp.) are useful indicators of species origin. Environ Res Section A 85:260–264
Marzo GA (2014) Atmospheric transport and deposition of radionuclides released after the Fukushima Dai-ichi accident and resulting effective dose. Atmosph Environ 94:709–722
Mietelski JW, Dubchak S, Błażej S, Anielska T, Turnau K (2010) 137Cs and 40K in fruiting bodies of different fungal species collected in a single forest in southern Poland. J Environ Radioactivity 101:706–711
Pang J, Zheng G, Wang L, Li Q, Wu R, Yan F, Hou X (1989) Environmental impact of Chernobyl accident on Xi’an area and health evaluation. Nucl Techn 12:713–719
Povinec PP, Aoyama M, Biddulph D, Breier R, Buesseler K, Chang CC, Golser R, Hou XL, Ješkovský M, Jull AJT, Kaizer J, Nakano M, Nies H, Palcsu I, Papp L, Pham MK, Steier P, Zhang LY (2013) Cesium, iodine and tritium in NW Pacific waters—a comparison of the Fukushima impact with global fallout. Biogeosciences 10:5481–5496
Rakić M, Karaman M, Forkapić S, Hansman J, Kebert M, Bikit K, Mrdj D (2014) Radionuclides in some edible and medicinal macrofungal species from Tara Mountain, Serbia. Environ Sci Poll Res 21:11283–11292
Saba M, Hanć A, Li T, Barałkiewicz D, Wang Y, Falandysz J (2016) Trace elements composition of Boletus mushrooms from the province of Yunnan, China. 18th International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment. 12 to 15 September 2016, Ghent, Belgium. ICHMET 2016 Abstract Book, 467–468.
Saniewski M, Zalewska T, Krasińska G, Szylke N, Wang Y, Falandysz J (2016) 90Sr in King Bolete Boletus edulis and certain other mushrooms consumed in Europe and China. Scie Total Environ 543:287–294
Shuai Z, Zhao Q, Pang R, Ouyang J, Liu P, Wang Q (2016) Impact of Japan’s Fukushima nuclear accident on the radiation environment of Sichuan Province. Sichuan Environ 35:92–97
Skibniewska KA, Smoczyński S (1999) Wpływ obróbki kulinarnej na poziom radiocezu w grzybach. Roczn Panstw Zakł Hig 50:157–167
Smith ML, Taylor HW, Sharma HD (1993) Comparison of the post-Chernobyl 137Cs contamination of mushrooms from eastern Europe, Sweden, and North America. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:134–139
Steinhauser G, Steinhauser V (2016) A simple and rapid method for reducing radiocesium concentrations in wild mushrooms (Cantharellus and Boletus) in the course of cooking. J Food Prot 79:1995–1999
Steinhauser G, Merz S, Hainz D, Sterba JH (2013) Artificial radioactivity in environmental media (air, rainwater, soil, vegetation) in Austria after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:2527–2434
Steinhauser G, Brandl A, Johnson TE (2014) Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: a review of the environmental impacts. Sci Total Environ 470-471:800–817
Strandberg M (2004) Long-term trends in the uptake of radiocesium in Rozites caperatus. Sci Total Environ 327:315–321
Strumińska-Parulska DI, Szymańska K, Krasińska K, Skwarzec B, Falandysz J (2016) Determination of 210Po and 210Pb in red-capped scaber (Leccinum aurantiacum) and substratum soil: bioconcentration and related dose assessment for consumers. Environ Sci Poll Res 23:22606–22613
Taira Y, Hayashidai N, Brahmanandhan GM, Nagayama Y, Yamashita SJ, Takahashi J, Gutenitc A, Kazlovsky A, Urazalin M, Takamura N (2011) Current concentration of artificial radionuclides and estimated radiation doses from 137Cs around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the Semipalatinsk nuclear testing site, and in Nagasaki. J Radiat Res 52:88–95
Tuo F, Xu C, Zhang J, Li W, Zhou Q, Zhang Q, Su X (2014) Measurement of activity concentrations for 137Cs and 40K in edible wild mushrooms collected from Mangshi, Yunnan province and evaluation of dose to adult (in Chinese). Chin J Radiol Med Prot 34:621–625
Turhan Ş, Köse A, Varinlioğlu A (2007) Radioactivity levels in some wild edible mushroom species in Turkey. Isotop Environ Health Stud 43:249–256
Wan E, Zheng X, Wang S, Wan G, Wang C (2014) Atmospheric pollutants transport tracks revealed from 131I, 137Cs, and 134Cs leaked from Fukushima accident and 7Be and 210Pb observed at Guiyang of China. Chin J Geochem 33:248–255
Wang J-J, Wang C-J, Lai S-Y, Lin Y-M (1998) Radioactivity concentrations of 137Cs and 40K in Basidiomycetes collected in Taiwan. Appl Radiat Isot 49:29–34
Wang Y-Z, Zalewska T, Apanel A, Zhang J, Zhang J, Maćkiewicz Z, Wiejak A, Falandysz J (2015) Artificial 137Cs and 134Cs and natural 40K in sclerotia of Wolfiporia extensa fungus collected across of the Yunnan land in China. J Environ Sci Health Part B 50:654–658
Wu G, Li Y, Zhu X, Zhao K, Han L, Cui Y, Li F, Xu J, Tang Z-L (2016) One hundred noteworthy boletes from China. Fungal Div. doi:10.1007/s13225-016-0375-8
Yasunari TJ, Stohl A, Hayano RS, Burkhart JF, Eckhart S, Yasunari T (2011) Cesium-137 deposition and contamination of Japanese soils due to the Fukushima nuclear accident. PNAS 108:19530–19534
Yoshida T, Muramatsu Y (1998) Concentrations of alkali and alkaline earth elements in mushrooms and plants collected in a Japanese pine forest, and their relationship with 137Cs. J Environ Radioact 41:183–205
Yoshida S, Muramatsu Y, Steiner M, Belli M, Pasquale A, Rafferty B, Rühm W, Rantavaara A, Linkov I, Dvornik A, Zhuchenko T (2000) Relationship between radiocesium and stable cesium in plants and mushrooms collected from forest ecosystems with different contamination levels. Proceedings of the 10th International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association. May, Hiroshima P-11-244
Yoshida T, Muramatsu Y, Dvornik AM, Zhuchenko TA, Linkov I (2004) Equilibrium of radiocesium with stable cesium within the biological cycle of contaminated forest ecosystems. J Environ Radioactivity 75:301–313
Zalewska T, Saniewski M (2011) Bioaccumulation of gamma emitting radionuclides in red algae from the Baltic Sea under laboratory conditions. Oceanologia 53:631–650
Zalewska T, Cocchi L, Falandysz J (2016) Radiocaesium in Cortinarius spp. mushrooms in the regions of the Reggio Emilia in Italy and Pomerania in Poland. Environ Sci Poll Res 23:23169–23174
Zhang D, Frankowska A, Jarzyńska G, Kojta AK, Drewnowska M, Wydmańska D, Bielawski L, Wang J, Falandysz J (2010) Metals of King Bolete (Boletus edulis) collected at the same site over two years. African J Agric Res 5:3050–3055
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Georg Steinhauser
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Falandysz, J., Zhang, J. & Zalewska, T. Radioactive artificial 137Cs and natural 40K activity in 21 edible mushrooms of the genus Boletus species from SW China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24, 8189–8199 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8494-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8494-7