Abstract
A preliminary field-based investigation was undertaken in a small (< 10 km2) river valley located in the mountainous Jura region of northwest Switzerland. The aims of the work were to assess sediment generation and annual sediment transport rates by tree throw on forested hillslopes, and to document surface hydrology characteristics on four fresh soil mounds associated with recent tree throws over a 24-day monitoring period. For the soil mounds, average sediment recovery ranged from 7.7–28.2 g (dry weight), equivalent to a suspended sediment concentration of 145.2–327.8 g L−1, and runoff coefficients ranged from 1.0%–4.2%. Based on a soil bulk density value of 1,044 kg m−3, upslope runoff generation areas were denuded by an average 0.14 mm by the end of the 24-day monitoring period, representing an erosion rate equivalent to 2.1 mm yr−1. A ca. 50 cm high soil mound could therefore feasibly persist for around 200–250 years. For tree throw work, the dimensions of 215 individual tree throws were measured and their locations mapped in 12 separate locations along the river valley representing a cumulative area equivalent to 5.3 ha (av. density, 43 per ha). Tree throws generated a total of 20.1 m3 of fine-sediment (< 2 mm diameter), or the equivalent of 3.8 × 10−4 m3 m−2. The process of tree throw was originally attributed to two extreme weather events that occurred in west and central Europe in late December 1999. Taking the 18-year period since both storms, this represents an annual sediment transport rate of 2.7 × 10−5 m3 m−1 yr−1. Exploring the relationship with wind on fall direction, 65.5% of tree throws (143) generally fell in a downslope direction irrespective of hillslope aspect on which they were located. This infers that individual storms may not have been responsible for the majority of tree throws, but instead, could be associated with root failure. Given the high density of tree throws and their relative maturity (average age 41 years), we hypothesise that once trees attain a certain age in this river valley, their physiognomy (i.e. height, mass and centre of gravity) compromises their ability to remain securely anchored. We tentatively attribute this possibility to the presence of bedrock close to the surface, and to the shallow soil profile overlaying steep hillslopes.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Bobrovsky MV, Lyko SV (2016) Patterns of pedoturbation by tree uprooting in forest soils. Russ J Ecosyst Ecol 1: 1–22. https://doi.org/10.21685/2500-0578-2016-1-3
Bründl M, Rickli C (2002) The storm Lothar 1999 in Switzerland — an incident analysis. For Snow Landsc Res 77: 207–216. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl:15318
Constantine JA, Schelhaas MJ, Gabet E, Mudd SM (2012) Limits of windthrow-driven hillslope sediment flux due to varying storm frequency and intensity. Geomorphology 175–176: 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.06.022
Deletic A (2005) Sediment transport in urban runoff over grassed areas. J Hydrol 301: 108–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.06.023
Denny C, Goodlet J (1956) Micro-relief resulting from fallen trees. Surficial Geology and Geomorphology of Potter County, Pennsylvania, Professional Paper 288: 59–66
Dietrich W, Dunne T, Humphrey NF, Reid LM (1982) Construction of sediment budgets for drainage basins. In: Swanson FJ, Janda RJ, Dunne T, Swanston DN (eds.). Sediment budgets and routing in forested drainage basins. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep PNW-141.
EQE Consulting (2020) EQE Summary Report: The European Storms Lothar and Martin, December 26–28, 1999. EQE International Consulting: Strategic Advisors for Natural Hazards and Terrorism. http://www.absconsulting.com/resources/Catastrophe_Reports/Lothar-MartinReport.pdf (accessed 05.03.2020)
Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss (2014) Climate of Switzerland. http://www.meteoswiss.admin.ch/home/climate/past/climate-of-switzerland (accessed 08.09.2017)
Evarham EM, Brokaw NVL (1996) Forest damage and recovery from catastrophic wind. Bot Rev 62: 113–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02857920
Fryirs KA, Brierly GJ, Preston NJ, Kasai M (2007) Buffers, barriers and blankets: The (dis)connectivity of catchmentscale sediment cascades. Catena 70: 49–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.07.007
Gabet EJ, Mudd SM (2010) Bedrock erosion by root fracture and tree throw: a coupled biogeomorphic model to explore the humped soil production function and the persistence of hillslope soils. J Geophys Res 115: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001526
Gabet EJ, Reichman OJ, Seabloom EW (2003) The effects of bioturbation on soil processes and sediment transport. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 31: 249–273. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314
Gallaway JM, Martin YE, Johnson EA (2009) Sediment transport due to tree root throw: integrating tree population dynamics, wildfire and geomorphic response. Earth Surf Process Landf 34: 1255–1269. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1813
Geißler C, Kuhn P, Böhnke M, et al. (2012) Splash erosion potential under tree canopies in subtropical SE China. Catena 91: 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2010.10.009
Greenwood P, Baumann P, Pulley S, Kuhn NJ (2018) The invasive alien plant, Impatiens glandulifera (Himalayan Balsam), and increased soil erosion: causation or association?: case studies from a river system in Switzerland and the UK. Special Issue 14th International Association of Sediment Water Sciences. J Soils Sediments. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-018-2041-0
Greenwood P, Gange AC, Kuhn NJ (2019) Evidence of sedimentation inequality along riparian areas colonised by Impatiens glandulifera (Himalayan Balsam). Weed Res 60: 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/wre.12397
Greenwood P, Kuhn NJ (2014) Does the invasive plant, Impatiens glandulifera, promote soil erosion along the riparian zone? An investigation on a small watercourse in northwest Switzerland. J Soils Sediments 14: 637–650. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-013-0825-9
Greenwood P, Zhang Y (2020) Comparing grain size composition of inter-rill and rill-eroded sediment from cultivated hillslope soils using caesium-134 and cobalt-60 as tracers. Soil Tillage Res 198. https://doi.org/10.1016/jstill.2019.104532
Hayhoe HN, Pellatier RG, Van Vliet AJP (1993) Estimation of snowmelt runoff in the Peace River region using a soil moisture budget. Can J Soil Sci 73: 489–501. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjss93-050
Heimseth AM, Dietrich WE, Nishiizumi K, Finkel RC (1997) The soil production function and landscape equilibrium. Nature 388: 358–361. https://doi.org/10.1038/41056
Hellmer MC, Rios BA, Ouimet WB, Sibley TR (2015) Ice storms, tree throws, and hillslope sediment transport in northern hardwood forests. Earth Surf Process Landf 40: 901–912. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3690
Horowitz AJ, Stephens VC, Elrick KA, Smith JJ (2012) Concentrations and annual fluxes of sediment associated chemical constituents from conterminous UK coastal rivers using bed sediment data. Hydrol Process 26: 1090–1114. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.8437
Kinnell PIA (2005) Raindrop-impact-induced erosion processes and prediction: a review. Hydrol Process 19: 2815–2844. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5788
Ledermann T, Herweg K, Liniger H, et al. (2008) Erosion damage mapping: Assessing current soil erosion damage in Switzerland. Adv GeoEcol 39. p 263. Dazzi C & Costantini E (eds.), ISBN 978-3-923381-56-2.
Lutz HJ (1940) Disturbance of forest soil resulting from the uprooting of trees. Yale University, School of Forestry Bulletin No. 45, Yale University: New Haven, CT. pp 1–37.
Martin YE, Johnson EA, Chaikina O (2013) Interplay between field observations and numerical modelling to understand temporal pulsing of tree root throw processes, Canadian Rockies, Canada. Geomorphology 200: 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.04.017
Martin YM (2000) Modelling hillslope evolution: linear and nonlinear transport relations. Geomorphology 34: 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0160-555x(99)00127-0
Martin YM, Church M (1997) Diffusion in landscape development models: on the nature of basic transport relations. Earth Surf Process Landf 22: 273–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199703)22:3<273::AID-ESP755>3.0.CO;2-D
Meteoblue (2017) Climate Grellingen. https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/forecast/modelclimate/grellingen_switzerland_2660513 (accessed 08.09.2017)
Mills HH (1984) Effect of hillslope angle and substrate on tree tilt, and denudation of hillslopes by tree fall. Phys Geogr 5: 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723646.1984.10642257
Mitchell AF (1974) A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe. Collins Publishers.
Mitchell SJ (2013) Wind as a natural disturbance agent in forests: a synthesis. Forestry 86: 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cps058
Nicoll BC, Achim A, Mochan S, Gardiner BA (2005) Does steep terrain influence tree stability? A field investigation. Can J For Res 35: 2360–2367. https://doi.org/10.1139/x05-157
Norman SA, Schaetzl RJ, Small TW (1995) Effect of slope angle on mass movement by tree uprooting. Geomorphology 14: 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555X(95)00016-X
Osterkamp WR, Toy TJ, Lenart MT (2006) Development of partial rock veneers by root throw in a subalpine setting. Earth Surf Process Landf 31: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1222
Pawlik Ł (2013) The role of trees in the geomorphic system of forested hillslopes — A review. Earth-Sci Rev 126: 250–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.007
Peltola H, Kellomäki S, Väisänen H, Ikonen VP (1999) A mechanistic model for assessing the risk of wind and snow damage to single trees and stands of Scots pine, Norway spruce, and birch. Can J For Res 29: 647–661. https://doi.org/10.1139/x99-029
Putz F (1983) Treefall pits and mounds, buried seeds, and the importance of soil disturbance to pioneer trees on Barro Colado Island, Panama. Ecology 64: 1069–1074. https://doi.org/10.2307/1937815
Ramos-Sharrón CE, MacDonald LH (2007) Measurement and prediction of natural and anthropogenic sediment sources, St John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Catena 71: 250–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2007.03.009
Rich RL, Frelich LE, Reich PB (2007) Wind-throw mortality in the southern boreal forest: effects of species, diameter and stand age. J Ecol 95: 1261–1273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01301.x
Rickli C, Graf F (2009) Effects of forests on shallow landslides — Case studies in Switzerland. For Snow Landsc Res 82: 33–44. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl:15351
Roering JJ, Marshall J, Booth AM, et al. (2010) Evidence for biotic controls on topography and soil production. Earth Planet Sci Lett 298: 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.07.040
Ruel JC (2000) Factors influencing windthrow in balsam fir forests: from landscape studies to individual tree studies. For Ecol Man 135: 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00308-X
Ruel JC, Pin D, Cooper K (1998) Effect of topography on wind behaviour in a complex terrain. Forestry 71: 261–265. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/71.3.261
Šamonil P, Král K, Hort L (2010) The role of tree uprooting in soil formation: a critical literature review. Geoderma 157: 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.03.018
Šamonil P, Scheatzl RJ, Valtera M, et al. (2013) Crossdating of disturbances by tree uprooting: Can three throw microtopography persist for 6000 years? For Ecol Manage 307: 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.06.045
Schaetzl RJ, Burns SF, Johnson DL, Small TW (1988) Tree uprooting: review of impacts on forest ecology. Vegetatio 79: 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00044908
Schweingruber FH (2007) Wood Structure and Environment. Springer Series in Wood Science. Springer Publishing, Heidelberg.
Strzyżowski D, Fidelus-Orzechowska J, Żelazny M (2018) Sediment transport by uprooting in the forested part of the Tatra Mountains, southern Poland. Catena 160: 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.019
Walling DE, Owens PE, Carter J, et al. (2003) Storage of sediment-associated nutrients and contaminants in river channel and floodplain systems. Appl Geochem 18: 195–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00121-X
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Physical Geography and Environmental Change Research Group, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel. We declare no conflict of interest. The authors thank A. Hügli and B. Thommen, the Bürgergemeinde (Community Mayor) from the towns of Brislach (Canton Basel-Land) and Himmelried (Canton Solothurn), respectively, for granting access to the study catchment. Special thanks are also extended to the journal editors for their help and encouragement, and to three anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions, all of which served to strengthen the paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Greenwood, P., Bauer, J. & Kuhn, N.J. Sediment generation and soil mound denudation in areas of high-density tree throw along a river valley in the Jura Mountains, Switzerland. J. Mt. Sci. 18, 377–391 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5867-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5867-z