Abstract
Viruses are a major threat causing massive yield loss and economical damage to crop production worldwide. Through complex evolutionary processes, plants encounter and overcome viral infection by developing effective resistance mechanisms. Over the past decade, remarkable progress has been made in understanding the nature of plant resistance to viruses at the molecular level. This review summarizes the major resistance strategies that plants use to prevent viral infection. Recent investigations suggest that antiviral RNA silencing is the most prevalent defense strategy in plants. Other forms of resistance include R gene-mediated resistance and host factor-related recessive resistance. Naturally occurring resistances arise and are maintained in numerous virus-plant pathosystems based mainly on arms-race relationships and the cost-efficiency of resistance acquisition. In addition to the current status of the known resistance mechanisms, this review discusses the future prospectus for the practical application of plant resistances that influence resistance durability in agricultural ecosystems. Such applications include molecular breeding strategies using advanced molecular marker systems and the utilization of trans- or cis- genetics via the acquisition of engineered disease resistances.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Literature Cited
Abel PP, Nelson RS, De B, Hoffmann N, Rogers SG, Fraley RT, Beachy RN (1986) Delay of disease development in transgenic plants that express the Tobacco mosaic virus coat protein gene. Science 232:738–743
AI-Kaff NS, Covey SN, Kreike MM, Page AM, Dale PJ (1998) Transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing in response to a pathogen. Science 279:2113–2115
Baulcombe D (1999) Viruses and gene silencing in plants. Arch Virol Suppl 15:189–201
Bendahmane A, Farnham G, Moffett P, Baulcombe DC (2002) Constitutive gain-of-function mutants in a nucleotide binding site-leucine rich repeat protein encoded at the Rx locus of potato. Plant J 32:195–204
Bendahmane A, Kohn BA, Dedi C, Baulcombe DC (1995) The coat protein of Potato virus X is a strain-specific elicitor of Rx1-mediated virus resistance in potato. Plant J 8:933–941
Boualem A, Dogimont C, Bendahmane A (2016) The battle for survival between viruses and their host plants. Curr Opin Virol 17:32–38
Brommonschenkel SH, Frary A, Frary A, Tanksley SD (2000) The broad-spectrum tospovirus resistance gene Sw-5 of tomato is a homolog of the root-knot nematode resistance gene Mi. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact 13:1130–1138
Brotman Y, Normantovich M, Goldenberg Z, Zvirin Z, Kovalski I, Stovbun N (2013) Dual resistance of melon to Fusarium oxysporum races 0 and 2 and to Papaya ring spot virus is controlled by a pair of head-to-head-oriented NB-LRR genes of unusual architecture. Mol Plant 6:235–238
Brown JK (2015) Durable resistance of crops to disease: a Darwinian perspective. Annu Rev Phytopathol 53:513–539
Burgyán J, Havelda Z (2011) Viral suppressors of RNA silencing. Trends Plant Sci 16:265–272
Büschges R, Hollricher K, Panstruga R, Simons G, Wolter M, Frijters A, van Daelen R, van der Lee T, Diergaarde P, Groenendijk J, et al (1997) The barley Mlo gene: a novel control element of plant pathogen resistance. Cell 88:695–705
Butterbach P, Verlaan MG, Dullemans A, Lohuis D, Visser RG, Bai Y, Kormelink R (2014) Tomato yellow leaf curl virus resistance by Ty-1 involves increased cytosine methylation of viral genomes and is compromised by Cucumber mosaic virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:12942–12947
Carrington JC, Ambros V (2003) Role of microRNAs in plant and animal development. Science 301:336–338
Carrington JC, Kasschau KD, Mahajan SK, Schaad MC (1996) Cell-to-cell and long-distance transport of viruses in plants. Plant Cell 8:1669–1681
Cavatorta J, Perez KW, Gray SM, van Eck J, Yeam I, Jahn M (2011) Engineering virus resistance using a modified potato gene. Plant Biotechnol J 9:1014–1021
Cavatorta JR, Savage AE, Yeam I, Gray S, Jahn MM (2008) Positive Darwinian selection at single amino acid sites conferring plant virus resistance. J Mol Evol 67:551–559
Chisholm ST, Mahajan SK, Whitham SA, Yamamoto ML, Carrington JC (2000) Cloning of the Arabidopsis RTM1 gene, which controls restriction of long-distance movement of tobacco etch virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:489–494
Collier SM, Moffett P (2009) NB-LRRs work a “bait and switch” on pathogens. Trends in Plant Science 14:521–529
Cook DE, Mesarich CH, Thomma BP (2015) Understanding plant immunity as a surveillance system to detect invasion. Annu Rev Phytopathol 53:541–563
Cosson P, Sofer L, Le QH, Léger V, Schurdi-Levraud V, Whitham SA, Yamamoto ML, Gopalan S, Le Gall O, Candresse T, et al (2010) RTM3, which controls long-distance movement of potyviruses, is a member of a new plant gene family encoding a meprin and TRAF homology domain-containing protein. Plant Physiol 154:222–232
Covey SN, AI-Kaff NS, Langara A, Turner OS (1997) Plants combat infection by gene silencing. Nature 85:780–781
Dangl JL, Dietrich RA, Richberg MH (1996) Death don't have no mercy: Cell death programs in plant-microbe interactions. Plant Cell 8:1793–1807
Dangl JL, Jones JD (2001) Plant pathogens and integrated defense responses to infection. Nature 411:826–833
Dasgupta I, Malathi VG, Mukherjee SK (2003) Genetic engineering for virus resistance. Curr Sci 84:341–354
Depicker A, Montagu MV (1997) Post-transcriptional gene silencing in plants. Curr Opin Cell Bioi 9:373–382
Ding SW, Voinnet O (2007) Antiviral immunity directed by small RNAs. Cell 130:413–426
Flor HH (1971) Current status of the gene-for-gene concept. Annu Rev Phytopathol 9:275–296
Foolad MR, Sharma A (2005) Molecular markers as selection tools in tomato breeding. Acta Hortic 695:225–240
Fraser RSS (1990) The genetics of resistance to plant viruses. Annu Rev Phytopathol 28:179–200
Fraser RSS (1992) The genetics of plantvirus interactions: implications for plant breeding. Euphytica 63:175–185
Gaj T, Gersbach CA, Barbas CF (2013) ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR/ Cas-based methods for genome engineering. Trends Biotechnol 31:397–405
Galvez LC, Banerjee J, Pinar H, Mitra A (2014) Engineered plant virus resistance. Plant Sci 228:11–25
Gao Z, Johansen E, Eyers S, Thomas CL, Noel Ellis TH, Maule AJ (2004) The potyvirus recessive resistance gene, sbm1, identifies a novel role for translation initiation factor eIF4E in cell-to-cell trafficking. Plant J 40:376–385
Gao Y, Zhao Y (2014) Specific and heritable gene editing in Arabidopsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:4357–4358
Gottula J, Fuchs M (2009) Toward a quarter century of pathogen-derived resistance and practical approaches to plant virusdisease control. Adv Virus Res 75:161–183
Grishok A, Pasquinelli AE, Conte D, Li N, Parrish S, Ha I, Baillie DL, Fire A, Ruvkun G, Mello CC (2001) Genes and mechanisms related to RNA interference regulate expression of the small temporal RNAs that control C. elegans developmental timing. Cell 106:23–34
Hammond SM, Caudy AA, Hannon GJ (2001) Post-transcriptional gene silencing by double-stranded RNA. Nature Rev Gen 2:110–119
Hammond-Kosack KE, Jones JD (1996) Resistance gene-dependent plant defense responses. Plant Cell 8:1773–1791
Hayes AJ, Jeong SC, Gore MA, Yu YG, Buss GR, Tolin SA (2004) Recombination within a nucleotide-binding-site/leucine-rich-repeat gene cluster produces new variants conditioning resistance to Soybean mosaic virus in soybeans. Genetics 166:493–503
Holmes FO (1929) Local lesions in tobacco mosaic. Bot Gaz 87:39–55
Ilardi V, Tavazza M (2015) Biotechnological strategies and tools for Plum pox virus resistance: trans-, intra-, cis-genesis, and beyond. Front Plant Sci 6:379
Incarbone M, Dunoyer P (2013) RNA silencing and its suppression: novel insights from in planta analyses. Trends Plant Sci 18:382–392
Ishibashi K, Masuda K, Naito S, Meshi T, Ishikawa M (2007) An inhibitor of viral RNA replication is encoded by a plant resistance gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:13833–13838
Iyer-Pascuzzi AS, McCouch SR (2007) Recessive resistance genes and the Oryza sativa-Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae pathosystem. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 20:731–739
Jin M, Lee SS, Ke L, Kim JS, Seo MS, Sohn SH, Park BS, Bonnema G (2014) Identification and mapping of a novel dominant resistance gene, TuRB07 to Turnip mosaic virus in Brassica rapa. Theor Appl Genet 127:509–519
Jones E, Chu W, Ayele M, Ho J, Bruggeman E, Yourstone K, Rafalski A, Smith OS, McMullen MD, Bezawada C, et al (2009). Development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for use in commercial maize (Zea mays L.) germplasm. Mol Breed 24:165–176
Jones JD, Dangl JL (2006) The plant immune system. Nature 444:323–329
Jung J, Kim HJ, Lee JM, Oh CS, Lee HJ, Yeam I (2015) Gene-based molecular marker system for multiple disease resistances in tomato against Tomato yellow leaf curl virus, late blight, and verticillium wilt. Euphytica 205:599–613
Kage U, Kumar A, Dhokane D, Karre S, Kushalappa AC (2015) Functional molecular markers for crop improvement. Crit Rev Biotechnol 16:1–14
Kamphuis LG, Hane JK, Nelson MN, Gao L, Atkins CA, Singh KB (2015) Transcriptome sequencing of different narrow-leafed lupin tissue types provides a comprehensive uni-gene assembly and extensive gene-based molecular markers. Plant Biotechnol J 13:14–25
Kang BC, Yeam I, Frantz JD, Murphy JF, Jahn MM (2005a) The pvr1 locus in Capsicum encodes a translation initiation factor eIF4E that interacts with Tobacco etch virus VPg. Plant J 42:392–405
Kang BC, Yeam I, Jahn MM (2005b) Genetics of plant virus resistance. Annu Rev Phytopathol 43:581–621
Kang BC, Yeam I, Li H, Perez KW, Jahn MM (2007) Ectopic expression of a recessive resistance gene generates dominant potyvirus resistance in plants. Plant Biotechnol J 5:526–536
Kasschau KD, Carrington JC (1998) A counter defensive strategy of plant viruses: suppression of posttranscriptional gene silencing. Cell 95:461–470
Keen NT (1990) Gene-for-gene complementarity in plant-pathogen interactions. Annu Rev Genet 24:447–463
Lanfermeijer FC, Dijkhuis J, Sturre MJ, de Haan P, Hille J (2003) Cloning and characterization of the durable Tomato mosaic virus resistance gene Tm-2(2) from Lycopersicon esculentum. Plant Mol Biol 52:1037–1049
Lapidot M, Karniel U, Gelbart D, Fogel D, Evenor D, Kutsher Y, Makhbash Z, Nahon S, Shlomo H, Chen L, et al (2015) A novel route controlling begomovirus resistance by the messenger RNA surveillance factor Pelota. PLoS Genet 11:e1005538
Lee JM, Oh CS, Yeam I (2015) Molecular markers for selecting diverse disease resistances in tomato breeding programs. Plant Breed Biotechnol 3:308–322
Lellis AD, Kasschau KD, Whitham SA, Carrington JC (2002) Loss-of-susceptibility mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana reveal an essential role for eIF(iso)4E during potyvirus infection. Curr Biol 12:1046–1051
Ling KS, Harris KR, Meyer JD, Levi A, Guner N, Wehner TC, Bendahmane A, Havey MJ (2009) Non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms in the watermelon eIF4E gene are closely associated with resistance to Zucchini yellow mosaic virus. Theor Appl Genet 120:191–200
Lochlainn SO, Amoah S, Graham NS, Alamer K, Rios JJ, Kurup S, Stoute A, Hammond JP, Ostergaard L, King GJ, et al (2011) High Resolution Melt (HRM) analysis is an efficient tool to genotype EMS mutants in complex crop genomes. Plant Methods 7:43
Ma JF, Hou XL, Xiao D, Qi L, Wang F, Sun FF, Wang Q (2010) Cloning and characterization of the BcTuR3 gene related to resistance to Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) from non-heading chinese cabbage. Plant Mol Biol Rep 28:588–596
Maiti S, Paul S, Pal A (2012) Isolation, characterization, and structure analysis of a non-TIR-NBS-LRR encoding candidate gene from MYMIV-resistant Vigna mungo. Mol Biotechnol 52:217–233
Marathe R, Anandalakshmi R, Smith TH, Pruss GJ, Vance VB (2000) RNA viruses as inducers, suppressors and targets of post-transcriptional gene silencing. Plant Mol Biol 43:295–306
Martin GB, Brommonschenkel S, Chunwongse J, Frary A, Ganal MW, Spivey R, Wu T, Earle ED, Tanksley SD (1993) Map-based cloning of a protein kinase gene conferring disease resistance in tomato. Science 262:1432–1436
Maule AJ, Caranta C, Boulton MI (2007) Sources of natural resistance to plant viruses: status and prospects. Mol Plant Pathol 8:223–231
Meyers BC, Kozik A, Griego A, Kuang H, Michelmore RW (2003) Genome-wide analysis of NBS-LRR-encoding genes in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 13:809–834
Miedaner T, Korzun V (2012) Marker-assisted selection for disease resistance in wheat and barley breeding. Phytopathology 102:560–566
Molnar A, Melnyk CW, Bassett A, Hardcastle TJ, Dunn R, Baulcombe DC (2010) Small silencing RNAs in plants are mobile and direct epigenetic modification in recipient cells. Science 328:872–875
Montarry J, Cartier E, Jacquemond M, Palloix A, Moury B (2012) Virus adaptation to quantitative plant resistance: erosion or breakdown? J Evol Biol 25:2242–2252
Morroni M, Thompson JR, Tepfer M (2008) Twenty years of transgenic plants resistant to Cucumber mosaic virus. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 21:675–684
Mundt CC (2014) Durable resistance: a key to sustainable management of pathogens and pests. Infect Genet Evol 27:446–455
Naderpour M, Lund OS, Larsen R, Johansen E (2010) Potyviral resistance derived from cultivars of Phaseolus vulgaris carrying bc-3 is associated with the homozygotic presence of a mutated eIF4E allele. Mol Plant Pathol 11:255–263
Nakahara KS, Masuta C (2014) Interaction between viral RNA silencing suppressors and host factors in plant immunity. Curr Opin Plant Biol 20:88–95
Nicaise V (2014) Crop immunity against viruses: outcomes and future challenges. Front Plant Sci 5:660
Nicaise V, German-Retana S, Sanjuan R, Dubrana MP, Mazier M, Maisonneuve B, Candresse T, Caranta C, LeGall O (2003) The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E controls lettuce susceptibility to the Potyvirus Lettuce mosaic virus. Plant Physiol 132:1272–1282
Nieto C, Morales M, Orjeda G, Clepet C, Monfort A, Sturbois B, Puigdomènech P, Pitrat M, Caboche M, Dogimont C, et al (2006) An eIF4E allele confers resistance to an uncapped and nonpolyadenylated RNA virus in melon. Plant J 48:452–462
Nishimura MT, Dangl JL (2010) Arabidopsis and the plant immune system. Plant J 61:1053–1066
Niu QW, Lin SS, Reyes JL, Chen KC, Wu HW, Yeh SD, Chua NH (2006) Expression of artificial microRNAs in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana confers virus resistance. Nat Biotechnol 24: 1420–1428
Orjuela J, Deless EF, Kolade O, Chéron S, Ghesquière A, Albar L (2013) A recessive resistance to Rice yellow mottle virus is associated with a rice homolog of the CPR5 gene, a regulator of active defense mechanisms. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 26:1455–6143
Padgett HS, Watanabe Y, Beachy R (1997) Identification of the TMV replicase sequence that activates the N gene-mediated hypersensitive response. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 10:709–715
Prins M (2003) Broad virus resistance in transgenic plants. Trends Biotechnol 21:373–375
Pumplin N, Voinnet O (2013) RNA silencing suppression by plant pathogens: defence, counter-defence and counter-counter-defence. Nat Rev Microbiol 11:745–760
Rairdan GJ, Collier SM, Sacco MA, Baldwin TT, Boettrich T, Moffett P (2008) The coiled-coil and nucleotide binding domains of the Potato Rx disease resistance protein function in pathogen recognition and signaling. Plant Cell 20:739–751
Ratcliff F, Harrison BD, Baulcombe DC (1997) A similarity between viral defense and gene silencing in plants. Science 276:1558–1560
Rathjen JP, Moffett P (2003) Early signal transduction events in specific plant disease resistance. Curr Opin Plant Biol 6:300–306
Ren T, Qu F, Morris TJ (2000) HRT gene function requires interaction between a NAC protein and viral capsid protein to confer resistance to turnip crinkle virus. Plant Cell 12:1917–1926
Ribeiro SG, Lohuis H, Goldbach R, Prins M (2007) Tomato chlorotic mottle virus is a target of RNA silencing but the presence of specific short interfering RNAs does not guarantee resistance in transgenic plants. J Virol 81:1563–1573
Richardson KL, Vales MI, Kling JG, Mundt CC, Hayes PM (2006) Pyramiding and dissecting disease resistance QTL to barley stripe rust. Theor Appl Genet 113:485–495
Richberg MH, Aviv DH, Dangl JL (1998) Dead cells do tell tales. Curr Opin Plant Biol 1:480–485
Robaglia C, Caranta C (2006) Translation initiation factors: a weak link in plant RNA virus infection. Trends Plant Sci 11:40–45
Rodriguez E, El Ghoul H, Mundy J, Petersen M (2015) Making sense of plant autoimmunity and ‘negative regulators’. FEBS J doi:10.1111/ febs.13613
Ruffel S, Dussault MH, Palloix A, Moury B, Bendahmane A, Robaglia C, Caranta C (2002) A natural recessive resistance gene against Potato virus Y in pepper corresponds to the eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E). Plant J 32:1067–1075
Ruffel S, Gallois JL, Lesage ML, Caranta C (2005) The recessive potyvirus resistance gene pot-1 is the tomato orthologue of the pepper pvr2-eIF4E gene. Mol Genet Genomics 274:346–353
Ruffel S, Gallois JL, Moury B, Robaglia C, Palloix A, Caranta C (2006) Simultaneous mutations in translation initiation factors eIF4E and eIF(iso)4E are required to prevent Pepper veinal mottle virus infection of pepper. J Gen Virol 87:2089–2098
Salgotra RK, Gupta BB, Stewart Jr. CN (2014) From genomics to functional markers in the era of next-generation sequencing. Biotechnol Lett 36:417–426
Sanfaçon H (2015) Plant translation factors and virus resistance. Viruses 7:3392–3419
Schaad MC, Anderberg RJ, Carrington JC (2000) Strain-specific interaction of the Tobacco etch virus NIa protein with the translation initiation factor eIF4E in the yeast two-hybrid system. Virology 273:300–306
Seo YS, Rojas MR, Lee JY, Lee SW, Jeon JS, Ronald P, Lucas WJ, Gilbertson RL (2006) A viral resistance gene from common bean functions across plant families and is up-regulated in a non-virus-specific manner. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:11856–11861
Smyth DR (1999) Gene silencing: plants and viruses fight it out. Curr Biol 9:R100–102
Stein N, Perovic D, Kumlehn J, Pellio B, Stracke S, Streng S, Ordon F, Graner A (2005) The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E confers multiallelic recessive bymovirus resistance in Hordeum vulgare (L.). Plant J 42:912–922
Takahashi H, Miller J, Nozaki Y, Takeda M, Shah J, Hase S, Ikegami M, Ehara Y, Dinesh-Kumar SP, Sukamto (2002) RCY1, an Arabidopsis thaliana RPP8/HRT family resistance gene, conferring resistance to Cucumber mosaic virus requires salicylic acid, ethylene and a novel signal transduction mechanism. Plant J 32:655–667
Tang X, Frederick RD, Zhou J, Halterman DA, Jia Y, Martin GB (1996) Initiation of plant disease resistance by physical interaction of AvrPto and Pto kinase. Science 274:2060–2063
Tena G, Boudsocq M, Sheen J (2011) Protein kinase signaling networks in plant innate immunity. Curr Opin Plant Biol 14:519–529
Thomashow MF, Nutter R, Montoya AL, Gordon MP, Nester EW (1980) Integration and organization of Ti plasmid sequences in crown gall tumors Cell 19:729–739
Thomson MJ (2014) High-throughput SNP genotyping to accelerate crop improvement. Plant Breed Biotechnol 2:195–212
Tomita R, Sekine KT, Mizumoto H, Sakamoto M, Murai J, Kiba A, Hikichi Y, Suzuki K, Kobayashi K (2011) Genetic basis for the hierarchical interaction between Tobamovirus spp. and L resistance gene alleles from different pepper species. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 24:108–117
Truniger V, Aranda MA (2009) Recessive resistance to plant viruses. Adv Virus Res 75:119–159
Ueda H, Yamaguchi Y, Sano H (2006) Direct interaction between the Tobacco mosaic virus helicase domain and the ATP-bound resistance protein, N factor during the hypersensitive response in tobacco plants. Plant Mol Biol 61:31–45
Vallejos CE, Astua-Monge G, Jones V, Plyler TR, Sakiyama NS, Mackenzie SA (2006) Genetic and molecular characterization of the I locus of Phaseolus vulgaris. Genetics 172:1229–1242
Van der Hoorn RA, Kamoun S (2008) From guard to decoy: a new model for perception of plant pathogen effectors. Plant Cell 20: 2009–2017
Vaucheret H, Fagard M (2001) Transcriptional gene silencing in plants: targets, inducers and regulators. Trends Genet 17:29–35
Vidal S, Cabrera H, Andersson RA, Fredriksson A, Valkonen JP (2002) Potato gene Y-1 is an N gene homolog that confers cell death upon infection with Potato virus Y. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 15:717–727
Vlot AC, Klessig DF, Park SW (2008) Systemic acquired resistance: the elusive signal(s). Curr Opin Plant Biol 11:436–442
Voinnet O (2001) RNA silencing as a plant immune system against viruses. Trends Genet 17:449–459
Whitham SA, Anderberg RJ, Chisholm ST, Carrington JC (2000) Arabidopsis RTM2 gene is necessary for specific restriction of Tobacco etch virus and encodes an unusual small heat shock-like protein. Plant Cell 12:569–582
Whitham S, Dinesh-Kumar SP, Choi D, Hehl R, Corr C, Baker B (1994) The product of the Tobacco mosaic virus resistance gene N: similarity to toll and the interleukin-1 receptor. Cell 78:1101–1115
Wicker T, Zimmermann W, Perovic D, Paterson AH, Ganal M, Graner A, Stein N (2005) A detailed look at 7 million years of genome evolution in a 439 kb contiguous sequence at the barley Hv-eIF4E locus: recombination, rearrangements and repeats. Plant J 41:184–194
Yamaji Y, Maejima K, Ozeki J, Komatsu K, Shiraishi T, Okano Y, Himeno M, Sugawara K, Neriya Y, Minato N, Miura C, Hashimoto M, Namba S (2012) Lectin-mediated resistance impairs plant virus infection at the cellular level. Plant Cell 24:778–793
Yang KY, Liu Y, Zhang S (2001) Activation of a mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway is involved in disease resistan in tobacco. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:741–746
Yeam I, Cavatorta JR, Ripoll D, Kang B-C, Jahn MM (2007) Functional dissection of naturally occurring amino acid substitutions in eIF4E that confers recessive potyvirus resistance in plants. Plant Cell 19:2913–2928
Yoshii M, Nishikiori M, Tomita K, Yoshioka N, Kozuka R, Naito S, Ishikawa M (2004) The Arabidopsis cucumovirus multiplication 1 and 2 loci encode translation initiation factors 4E and 4G. J Virol 78:6102–6111
Zhao JH, Hua CL, Fang YY, Guo HS (2016) The dual edge of RNA silencing suppressors in the virus-host interactions. Curr Opin Virol 17:39–44
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Yeam, I. Current advances and prospectus of viral resistance in horticultural crops. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 57, 113–122 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-016-0105-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-016-0105-x