Table 3 Are victim-offenders unique? Comparing victim-offenders to three groups (individuals who are neither victims nor offenders, victims-only, and offenders-only)
From: The Developmental Nature of the Victim-Offender Overlap
Victim-offender status | p < .05 compared to victim-offendera | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Neither (N) n = 659 | Victim-only (V) n = 312 | Offender-only (O) n = 380 | Victim-offender n = 546 | ||
Victimization and offending | |||||
Victimization, mean (SD) | 0.00 (0.00) | 2.39 (2.09) | 0.00 (0.00) | 3.85 (2.91) | N, V, O |
Offending, mean (SD) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | 2.64 (2.36) | 4.07 (3.03) | N, V, O |
Personal risk factors | |||||
Low self-control z-score, mean (SD) | −0.37 (0.88) | −0.10 (0.89) | 0.05 (0.99) | 0.36 (1.02) | N, V, O |
Cognitive ability, mean (SD) | 99.9 (15.4) | 98.4 (14.8) | 100.2 (15.6) | 98.1 (15.5) | – |
Early puberty, mean (SD) | 2.60 (1.08) | 2.73 (1.13) | 2.59 (1.11) | 2.70 (1.12) | – |
Conduct disorder diagnosis, N (%) | 35 (5.3%) | 35 (11.2%) | 65 (17.1%) | 151 (27.7%) | N, V, O |
Childhood self-reported delinquency, mean (SD) | 1.14 (1.39) | 1.46 (1.52) | 2.24 (2.25) | 2.84 (2.11) | N, V, O |
Childhood substance use, mean (SD) | 0.54 (0.89) | 0.70 (0.98) | 0.88 (1.13) | 1.30 (1.43) | N, V, O |
Total of all ACEs (up to 19 ACEs), mean (SD) | 2.30 (2.18) | 3.31 (2.53) | 2.97 (2.34) | 4.15 (2.87) | N, V, O |
Conventional ACEs (up to 9 ACEs), mean (SD) | 1.09 (1.28) | 1.66 (1.56) | 1.34 (1.37) | 2.00 (1.69) | N, V, O |
Physical abuse, N (%) | 17 (2.6%) | 11 (3.5%) | 11 (2.9%) | 52 (9.5%) | N, V, O |
Sexual abuse, N (%) | 2 (0.3%) | 2 (0.6%) | 3 (0.8%) | 9 (1.6%) | – |
Emotional abuse or neglect, N (%) | 6 (0.9%) | 11 (3.5%) | 8 (2.1%) | 24 (4.4%) | N |
Physical neglect, N (%) | 3 (0.5%) | 7 (2.2%) | 2 (0.5%) | 18 (3.3%) | N, O |
Domestic violence exposure, N (%) | 80 (12.1%) | 54 (17.3%) | 60 (15.8%) | 127 (23.3%) | N, O |
Parental antisocial behavior, N (%) | 103 (15.6%) | 95 (30.4%) | 85 (22.5%) | 183 (33.6%) | N, O |
Family history of substance abuse, N (%) | 94 (14.3%) | 77 (24.7%) | 73 (19.2%) | 163 (30.0%) | N, O |
Family history of mental health disorders, N (%) | 167 (25.4%) | 99 (32.0%) | 96 (25.3%) | 204 (38.2%) | N, O |
Parental separation or divorce, N (%) | 245 (38.0%) | 163 (52.8%) | 173 (46.0%) | 310 (58.1%) | N, O |
Expanded ACEs (up to 10 ACEs) | 1.21 (1.38) | 1.65 (1.51) | 1.63 (1.51) | 2.16 (1.84) | N, V, O |
Bullying victim, N (%) | 34 (5.2%) | 41 (13.1%) | 23 (6.1%) | 65 (11.9%) | N, O |
Lived in foster care, N (%) | 2 (0.3%) | 3 (1.0%) | 1 (0.3%) | 9 (1.6%) | – |
Low socioeconomic status, N (%) | 94 (14.3%) | 56 (17.9%) | 67 (17.6%) | 135 (24.7%) | N, O |
Peer substance abuse, N (%) | 70 (10.6%) | 53 (17.0%) | 82 (21.7%) | 169 (31.1%) | N, V, O |
Low parental monitoring (mother), N (%) | 86 (13.1%) | 52 (16.7%) | 80 (21.1%) | 125 (22.9%) | N |
Low parental monitoring (participant), N (%) | 96 (14.6%) | 52 (16.7%) | 89 (23.4%) | 165 (30.2%) | N, V, O |
Participant-perceived unsafe neighborhood, N (%) | 50 (7.6%) | 43 (13.9%) | 40 (10.6%) | 99 (18.2%) | N, O |
High neighbor victimization, N (%) | 131 (20.5%) | 90 (29.7%) | 86 (23.4%) | 156 (30.1%) | N |
Neighborhood rated unsafe, N (%) | 85 (14.4%) | 56 (19.4%) | 67 (19.4%) | 124 (25.9%) | N |
High-crime neighborhood, N (%) | 148 (23.5%) | 69 (22.8%) | 84 (22.7%) | 131 (25.4%) | – |
Summary scale of all risk factors | 1.57 (1.14) | 1.95 (1.23) | 2.14 (1.35) | 2.66 (1.45) | N, V, O |