Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination is a global phenomenon and causes a wide array of negative effects and other complications. This study focused on commonly found mycotoxins in Africa and the possible means of prevention or reduction of their contaminating effects. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of mold and fungi; they are generally toxic to living organisms. Hundreds of mycotoxins have been identified thus far, with some, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, and patulin, considered agro-economically important. Several factors contribute to the presence of mycotoxins in food, such as climatic conditions, pest infestation, and poor harvest and storage practices. Exposure to mycotoxins, which occurs mostly by ingestion, leads to various diseases, such as mycotoxicoses and mycoses that may eventually result in death. In light of this, this review of relevant literature focuses on mycotoxin contamination, as well as various methods for the prevention and control of their prevalence, to avert its debilitating consequences on human health. Clear evidence of mycotoxin contamination is present in Africa, and it was therefore recommended that adequate prevention and control of these toxic substances in our food system should be encouraged and that appropriate measures must be taken to ensure food safety as well as the enhanced or long-lifespan of the African populace. Governments, research institutions, and non-governmental organizations should tailor the limited resources available to tackle mycotoxin prevalence, as these will offer the best prospects for successful development of a sustainable food system in Africa.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Hussein, H.S. and Brasel, J.M. (2001) Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. Toxicology, 167, 101–134.
Darwish, W.S., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S.M.M. and Ishizuka, M. (2014) An overview on mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 76, 789–797.
World Health Organisation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (WHO-IARC) (1993) Tosins derived from Fusarium moniliforme: fumonisins B1 and B2, and fusarin C. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum., 56, 445–462.
Iheshiulor, O.O.M., Esonu, B.O., Chuwuka, O.K., Omede, A.A., Okoli, I.C. and Ogbuewu, I.P. (2011) Effects of mycotoxins in animal nutrition. Asian J. Anim. Sci., 5, 19–33.
Bennett, J.W. and Klich, M. (2003) Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 16, 497–516.
Zain, M.E. (2011) Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. J. Saudi Chem. Soc., 15, 129–144.
World Health Organization & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( 2011) FAO/WHO Guide for Application of Risk Analysis Principles and Procedures during Food Safety Emergencies, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Streit, E., Schatzmayr, G., Tassis, P., Tzika, E., Marin, D., Taranu, I., Tabuc, C., Nicolau, A., Aprodu, I., Puel, O. and Oswald, I.P. (2012) Current situation of mycotoxin contamination and co-occurrence in animal feed-focus on Europe. Toxins, 4, 788–809.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. (2006) Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination of food and animal feed: a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 46, 593–619.
Bonel, L., Vidal, J.C., Duato, P. and Castillo, J.R. (2011) An electrochemical competitive biosensor for ochratoxin A based on a DNA biotinylated aptamer. Biosens. Bioelectron., 26, 3254–3259.
Jarvis, B.B. (2002) Chemistry and toxicology of molds isolated from water-damaged buildings. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 504, 43–52.
Niculita-Hirzel, H., Hantier, G., Storti, F., Plateel, G. and Roger, T. (2016) Frequent occupational exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins of workers in the swiss grain industry. Toxins, 8, 370.
Zinedine, A. and Mañes, J. (2009) Occurrence and legislation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Morocco. Food Control, 20, 334–344.
John, I.P. and Miller, J.D. (2017) A conscise history of mycotoxin research. J. Agric. Food Chem., 65, 7021–7033.
Wen, J., Kong, W., Hu, Y., Wang, J. and Yang, M. (2014) Multi-mycotoxins analysis in ginger and related products by UHPLC-FLR detection and LC-MS/MS confirmation. Food Control, 43, 82–87.
Alcaide-Molina, M., Ruiz-Jiménez, J., Mata-Granados, J. and de Castro, M.L. (2009) High through-put aflatoxin determination in plant material by automated solid-phase extraction on-line coupled to laser-induced fluorescence screening and determination by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A, 1216, 1115–1125.
Ali, N., Hashim, N., Saad, B., Safan, K., Nakajima, M. and Yoshizawa, T. (2005) Evaluation of a method to determine the natural occurrence of aflatoxins in commercial traditional herbal medicines from Malaysia and Indonesia. Food Chem. Toxicol., 43, 1763–1772.
Makun, H.A., Dutton, M.F., Njobeh, P.B., Mwanza, M. and Kabiru, A.Y. (2011) Natural multi-occurrence of mycotoxins in rice from Niger State, Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res., 27, 97–104.
Nyaga, P.N. (2010) Report on Aflatoxin contamination in Maize, Ministry of Agriculture.
Rotimi, O.A., Rotimi, S.O., Oluwafemi, F., Ademuyiwa, O. and Balogun, E.A. (2018) Oxidative stress in extrahepatic tissues of rats co-exposed to aflatoxin B1 and low protein diet. Toxicol. Res., 34, 211–220.
Ventura, M., Gomez, A., Anaya, I., Díaz, J., Broto, F., Agut, M. and Comellas, L. (2004) Determination of aflatoxins B1, G1, B2 and G2 in medicinal herbs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A, 1048, 25–29.
Zöllner, P. and Mayer-Helm, B. (2006) Trace mycotoxin analysis in complex biological and food matrices by liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure ionisation mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A, 1136, 123–169.
Afsah-Hejri, L., Jinap, S., Hajeb, P., Radu, S. and Shakibazadeh, S. (2013) A review on mycotoxins in food and feed: Malaysia case study. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf., 12, 629–651.
Bilotti, L.G., Fernández Pinto, V.E. and Vaamonde, G. (2000) Aflatoxin production in three selected samples of triticale, wheat and rye grown in Argentina. J. Sci. Food Agric., 80, 1981–1984.
Duarte, S., Pena, A. and Lino, C. (2010) A review on ochratoxin A occurrence and effects of processing of cereal and cereal derived food products. Food Microbiol., 27, 187–198.
Egbuta, M.A. (2012) Ochratoxins Occur Primarily in Cereals in Northern Europe and Africa. A Disseratation Submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Ribelin, W., Fukushima, K. and Still, P. (1978) The toxicity of ochratoxin to ruminants. Can. J. Comp. Med., 42, 172.
Hassan, A.M., Sheashaa, H.A., Fattah, M.F.A., Ibrahim, A.Z., Gaber, O.A. and Sobh, M.A. (2006) Study of ochratoxin A as an environmental risk that causes renal injury in breast-fed Egyptian infants. Pediatr. Nephrol., 21, 102–105.
Malir, F., Ostry, V., Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. and Roubal, T. (2012) Ochratoxin A exposure biomarkers in the Czech Republic and comparison with foreign countries. Biomarkers, 17, 577–589.
Soleas, G.J., Yan, J. and Goldberg, D.M. (2001) Assay of ochratoxin A in wine and beer by high-pressure liquid chromatography photodiode array and gas chromatography mass selective detection. J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 2733–2740.
Marasas, W. (2001) Discovery and occurrence of the fumonisins: a historical perspective. Environ. Health Perspect., 109, 239.
Edson, N., Bradley, C.F., Cees, W. and Altus, V. (2011) Fusarium spp. and levels of fumonisins in maize produced by subsistence farmers in South Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci., 107, 1–2.
Czembor, E., Adamczyk, J., Posta, K., Oldenburg, E. and Schürch, S. (2010) Prevention of ear rots due to Fusarium spp. on maize and mycotoxin accumulation in Food Quality and Safety, 6th framework programme, guide number 3.
Shephard, G. (2011) Fusarium mycotoxins and human health. Plant Breed. Seed Sci., 64, 113–121.
Giannitti, F., Diab, S.S., Pacin, A.M., Barrandeguy, M., Larrere, C., Ortega, J. and Uzal, F.A. (2011) Equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM) due to fumonisins B1 and B2 in Argentina. Pesq. Vet. Bras., 31, 407–412.
Sangare-Tigori, B., Moukha, S., Kouadio, H.J., Betbeder, A.M., Dano, D.S. and Creppy, E.E. (2006) Co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1, fumonisin B1, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in cereals and peanuts from Cote d’Ivoire. Food Addit. Contam., 23, 1000–1007.
Whitlow, L. and Hagler, W. (2004) Nutrional Biotechnology in the feed and food industries. Proceedings of All tech’s 20th Annual Symposium: re-imagining the feed industry, Lexington, Kentucky, USA, 23–26 May 2004.
Reddy, K., Salleh, B., Saad, B., Abbas, H., Abel, C. and Shier, W. (2010) An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health. Toxin Rev., 29, 3–26.
Rodrigues, I., Handl, J. and Binder, E.M. (2011) Mycotoxin occurrence in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients sourced in the Middle East and Africa. Food Addit. Contam. Part B Surveill., 4, 168–179.
Shephard, G.S., Van der Westhuizen, L., Katerere, D.R., Herbst, M. and Pineiro, M. (2010) Preliminary exposure assessment of deoxynivalenol and patulin in South Africa. Mycotoxin Res., 26, 181–185.
Katerere, D.R., Stockenström, S., Thembo, K.M., Balducci, G. and Shephard, G.S. (2007) Investigation of patulin contamination in apple juice sold in retail outlets in Italy and South Africa. Food Addit. Contam., 24, 630–634.
Ismaiel, A.A. and Papenbrock, J. (2015) Mycotoxins: producing fungi and mechanisms of phytotoxicity. Agriculture, 5, 492–537.
Junaid, S., Olarubofin, F. and Olabode, A. (2010) Mycotic contamination of stockfish sold in Jos, Nigeria. J. Yeast Fungal Res., 1, 136–141.
Llewellyn, G., McCay, J., Brown, R., Musgrove, D., Butterworth, L., Munson, A.E. and White, K.L., Jr. (1998) Immunological evaluation of the mycotoxin patulin in female B6C3F 1 mice. Food Chem. Toxicol., 36, 1107–1115.
Lupescu, A., Jilani, K., Zbidah, M. and Lang, F. (2013) Patulin-induced suicidal erythrocyte death. Cell. Physiol. Biochem., 32, 291–299.
Blanchard, D.J. and Manderville, R.A. (2016) An internal charge transfer-DNA platform for fluorescence sensing of divalent metal ions. ChemComm, 52, 9586–9588.
Faucet-Marquis, V., Joannis-Cassan, C., Hadjeba-Medjdoub, K., Ballet, N. and Pfohl-Leszkowicz, A. (2014) Development of an in vitro method for the prediction of mycotoxin binding on yeast-based products: case of aflatoxin B1, zearalenone and ochratoxin A. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 98, 7583–7596.
Chang, H., Li, P., Zhang, W., Liu, T., Hoffmann, A., Deng, L. and Wu, M. (2014) Nanometer-thick yttrium iron garnet films with extremely low damping. IEEE Magn. Lett., 5, 1–4.
Tian, Y., Tan, Y., Liu, N., Liao, Y., Sun, C., Wang, S. and Wu, A. (2016) Functional agents to biologically control deoxynivalenol contamination in cereal grains. Front. Microbiol., 7, 395.
Pinton, P. and Oswald, I.P. (2014) Effect of deoxynivalenol and other Type B trichothecenes on the intestine: a review. Toxins, 6, 1615–1643.
Ali, E.M. (2013) Phytochemical composition, antifungal, antiaflatoxigenic, antioxidant, and anticancer activities of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and Matricaria chamomilla L. essential oils. J. Med. Plants Res., 7, 2197–2207.
Reddy, K., Nurdijati, S. and Salleh, B. (2010) An overview of plant-derived products on control of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. Asian J. Plant Sci., 9, 126.
Asao, T., Buchi, G., Abdel-Kader, M., Chang, S., Wick, E.L. and Wogan, G. (1963) Aflatoxins B and G. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85, 1706–1707.
Merrill, A.H., Jr., Sullards, M.C., Wang, E., Voss, K.A. and Riley, R.T. (2001) Sphingolipid metabolism: roles in signal transduction and disruption by fumonisins. Environ. Health Perspect., 109, 283.
Shephard, G. (2008) Impact of mycotoxins on human health in developing countries. Food Addit. Contam. Part A Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess., 25, 146–151.
Carvajal-Moreno, M. (2015) Metabolic Changes of Aflatoxin B1 to become an active carcinogen and the control of this toxin. Immunome Res., 11, 1.
Clara, C. (2013) Antifungal Secondary Metabolites from Monanthotaxis Littoralis with Activity against Mycotoxigenic Fungi from Maize, Egerton University.
Allameh, A., Rasooli, I. and Ziglari, T. (2011) Phytoinhibition of Growth and Aflatoxin Biosynthesis in Toxigenic Fungi, INTECH Open Access Publisher.
Nathanail, A.V., Syvähuoko, J., Malachová, A., Jestoi, M., Varga, E., Michlmayr, H., Adam, G, Sieviläinen, E., Berthiller, F. and Peltonen, K. (2015) Simultaneous determination of major type A and B trichothecenes, zearalenone and certain modified metabolites in Finnish cereal grains with a novel liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 407, 4745–4755.
Douglas, L.P. and William, D.P. (2001) Reduction of aflatoxin hazards using ammoniation. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 171, 139–175.
Janos, V., Sandor, K., Zsanett, P., Csaba, V. and Beata, T. (2010) Chemical, physical and biological approaches to prevent ochratoxin induced toxicoses in humans and animals. Toxins, 2, 1718–1750.
Choudhary, A.K. and Kumari, P. (2010) Management of mycotoxin contamination in preharvest and post harvest crops: present status and future prospects. J. Phytol., 2, 37–52.
Suttajit, M. (1989) Prevention and control of mycotoxins in Mycotoxin Prevention and Control in Foodgrains (Semple, R.L., Frio, A.S., Hicks, P.A. and Lozare, J.V. Eds.). Bankok, Thailand.
Rodrigues, I. (2014) A review on the effects of mycotoxins in dairy ruminants. Animal Prod. Sci., 54, 1155–1165.
Bunaciu, A.A., Aboul-Enein, H.Y. and Hoang, V.D. (2015) Raman spectroscopy for protein analysis. Appl. Spectrosc. Rev., 50, 377–386.
Abrunhosa, L., Paterson, R.R. and Venâncio, A. (2010) Biodegradation of ochratoxin A for food and feed decontamination. Toxins, 2, 1078–1079.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
About this article
Cite this article
Omotayo, O.P., Omotayo, A.O., Mwanza, M. et al. Prevalence of Mycotoxins and Their Consequences on Human Health. Toxicol Res. 35, 1–7 (2019). https://doi.org/10.5487/TR.2019.35.1.001
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5487/TR.2019.35.1.001