Abstract
Marine habitats are extremely valuable in many ways (e.g., economically, culturally or for subsistence) and provide many necessary services for humans (Costanza et al. 1997, 2014). Despite their importance, coastal and oceanic habitats are increasingly threatened by fishing, climate change, oil and gas exploration, pollution and coastal development (Jackson et al. 2001; Halpern et al. 2008, 2019; Heery et al. 2017; Harris 2020). Habitat degradation and loss from these threats are not uniformly distributed and are cumulative with poorly understood interactions between pressures (Halpern et al. 2008). Despite the enormous impacts humans have had on marine ecosystems in the global ocean over the past 50 years, they tend to appear not as the complete extinction of individual species (Dulvy et al. 2003) but rather as changes in ecosystem composition and in the relative abundance and ecological status of individual species, along with more regional or local extirpations (Worm and Tittensor 2011). A species need not become globally extinct to radically alter the composition of the ecosystem (‘ecological extinction’), disappear from the local environment (‘local extinction’) or become commercially non-viable (‘commercial extinction’). Biodiversity loss is a globally significant symptom of unsustainable exploitation of Earth’s natural environment and a major threat to the ecosystem services on which we, and future generations, depend.
Originally published in:
Rogers, A., O. Aburto-Oropeza, et al. 2020. Critical Habitats and Biodiversity: Inventory, Thresholds and Governance. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Available online at www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/critical-habitats-and-biodiversity-inventory-thresholds-and-governance.
Reprint by Springer International Publishing (2023) with kind permission.
Published under license from the World Resources Institute.
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- ABNJ:
-
Areas beyond national jurisdiction
- AUV:
-
Autonomous underwater vehicle
- eDNA:
-
Environmental DNA (molecular tool for assessing biodiversity)
- BBNJ:
-
Biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (refers to negotiations to establish an international legally binding instrument under UNCLOS on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction)
- BEF:
-
Biodiversity and ecosystem function
- Bmsy:
-
Biomass at maximum sustainable yield
- CBD:
-
Convention on Biological Diversity
- CCAMLR:
-
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
- CCRF:
-
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing
- CoML:
-
Census of Marine Life
- COPEPOD:
-
Coastal and Oceanic Plankton Ecology Production and Observation Database
- CPUE:
-
Catch per unit effort
- DD:
-
Data deficient (Red List category)
- EBSA:
-
Ecologically and biologically significant area
- EEZ:
-
Exclusive economic zone
- EOV:
-
Essential Ocean Variable
- EuroGOOS:
-
European Global Ocean Observing System
- FAIR:
-
Findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable (principles for data sharing)
- FAO:
-
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
- GEO:
-
Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network
- GOBI:
-
Global Ocean Biodiversity Initiative
- GOOS:
-
Global Ocean Observing System
- GOOS:
-
BioEco Biology and Ecosystems Panel of the Global Ocean Observing System
- GDP:
-
Gross domestic product
- IMOS:
-
Integrated Marine Observing System (Australia)
- IOC:
-
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
- IODE:
-
International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange
- IOOS:
-
Integrated Ocean Observing System (United States)
- IPBES:
-
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
- IPCC:
-
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- ISA:
-
International Seabed Authority (UN agency charged with managing mining in the area; seabed in ABNJ)
- ITIS:
-
Integrated Taxonomic Information System
- IUCN:
-
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
- IUU:
-
Illegal, unregulated and unreported
- KBA:
-
Key biodiversity area
- MBON:
-
Marine Biodiversity Observation Network (part of the GEO BON program)
- MPA:
-
Marine protected area
- NAGISA:
-
Natural Geography in Shore Areas (CoML project)
- NCP:
-
Nature’s contribution to people
- NEAFC:
-
North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission
- NEOLI:
-
No-take, enforced, old, large, isolated (refers to MPAs; Edgar et al. 2014)
- NGO:
-
Non-governmental organisation
- OBIS:
-
Ocean Biogeographic Information System
- OECM:
-
Other effective area-based marine conservation measure
- OSPAR:
-
Oslo Paris Commission
- PR:
-
Performance review (in the context of fisheries management organisations)
- RFMO:
-
Regional Fisheries Management Organisation
- RLS:
-
Reef Life Survey
- ROV:
-
Remotely operated vehicle
- SDG:
-
Sustainable Development Goal
- TURF:
-
Territorial use rights for fishing programs
- UN:
-
United Nations
- UNCLOS:
-
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
- UNEP:
-
United Nations Environment Programme
- UNESCO:
-
UNESCO
- VME:
-
Vulnerable marine ecosystems
- WCMC:
-
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
- WoRMS:
-
World Register of Marine Species
References
Aburto-Oropeza O, Ezcurra E, Danemann G, Valdez V, Murray J, Sala E (2008) Mangroves in the Gulf of California increase fishery yields. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(30):10456–10459. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0804601105
Aburto-Oropeza O, Erisman B, Galland GR, Mascareñas-Osorio I, Sala E, Ezcurra E (2011) Large recovery of fish biomass in a no-take marine reserve. PloS One 6(8):e23601. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023601
Aebischer NJ, Coulson JC, Colebrook JM (1990) Parallel long-term trends across four marine trophic levels and weather. Nature 347(October):753–755. https://doi.org/10.1038/347753a0
Agardy T, di Sciara GN, Christie P (2011) Mind the gap: addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning. Mar Policy 35:226–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.10.006
Ainsworth TD, Heron SF, Ortiz JC, Mumby PJ, Grech A, Ogawa D, Eakin CM, Leggat W (2016) Climate change disables coral bleaching protection on the great barrier reef. Science 352(6283):338–342. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7125
Albouy C, Archambault P, Appeltans W, Araujo MB, Beauchesne D, Cazelles K, Cirtwill AR et al (2019) The marine fish food web is globally connected. Nat Ecol Evol 3(August):1153–1161. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0950-y
Alder J (2003) Putting the coast in the sea around us project. Sea Around Us Newsl 15:1–2. http://seaaroundus.org/newsletter/Issue15.pdf
Alongi DM (2015) The impact of climate change on mangrove forests. Curr Clim Change Rep 1(March):30–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-015-0002-x
Amoroso RO, Pitcher CR, Rijnsdorp AD, McConnaughey RA, Parma AM, Suuronen P, Eigaard OR et al (2018) Bottom trawl fishing footprints on the world’s continental shelves. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115(43):E10275–E10282. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1802379115
Anderson RB (2019) Beyond ‘Success’: community, governance, and the future of Cabo Pulmo National Park. Hum Organ 78(2):147–157. https://doi.org/10.17730/0018-7259.78.2.147
Anderson ORJ, Small CJ, Croxall JP, Dunn EK, Sullivan BJ, Yates O, Black A (2011) Global seabird bycatch in longline fisheries. Endanger Species Res 14(2):91–106. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00347
Andréfouët S (2008) Coral reef habitat mapping using remote sensing: a user vs producer perspective. implications for research, management and capacity building. J Spatial Sci 53(1):113–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2008.9635140
Appeltans W, Ahyong ST, Anderson G, Angel MV, Artois T, Bailly N, Bamber R et al (2012) The magnitude of global marine species diversity. Curr Biol 22(23):2189–2202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.09.036
Arias-Ortiz A, Serrano O, Masqué P, Lavery PS, Mueller U, Kendrick GA, Rozaimi M et al (2018) A marine heatwave drives massive losses from the world’s largest seagrass carbon stocks. Nat Clim Change 8(April):338–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0096-y
Asch RG, Erisman B (2018) Spawning aggregations act as a bottleneck influencing climate change impacts on a critically endangered reef fish. Divers Distrib 24(112):1712–1728. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12809
Asch RG, Cheung W, Reygondeau G (2018) Future marine ecosystem drivers, biodiversity, and fisheries maximum catch potential in Pacific Island countries and territories under climate change. Mar Policy 88:285–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.015
Ashford OS, Kenny AJ, Froján CRS, Bonsall MB, Horton T, Brandt A, Bird GJ, Gerken S, Rogers AD (2018) Phylogenetic and functional evidence suggests that deep-ocean ecosystems are highly sensitive to environmental change and direct human disturbance. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 285(1884):20180923. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0923
Avery JD, Aagaard K, Burkhalter JC, Robinson OJ (2017) Seabird longline bycatch reduction devices increase target catch while reducing bycatch: a meta-analysis. J Nat Conserv 38(July):37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2017.05.004
Badjeck M-C, Allison EH, Halls AS, Dulvy NK (2010) Impacts of climate variability and change on fishery-based livelihoods. Mar Policy 34(3):375–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2009.08.007
Baker EK, Harris PT (2020) Habitat mapping and marine management. In: Harris PT, Baker EK (eds) Seafloor geomorphology as benthic habitat. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814960-7.00002-6
Bakun A (2006) Wasp-waist populations and marine ecosystem dynamics: navigating the ‘predator pit’ topographies. Prog Oceanogr 68(2–4):271–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2006.02.004
Balmford A, Gravestock P, Hockley N, McClean CJ, Roberts CM (2004) The worldwide costs of marine protected areas. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101(26):9694–9697. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0403239101
Ban NC, Davies TE, Aguilera SE, Brooks C, Cox M, Epstein G, Evans LS, Maxwell SM, Nenadovic M (2017) Social and ecological effectiveness of large marine protected areas. Glob Environ Chang 43(March):82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.01.003
Barange M, Merino G, Blanchard JL, Scholtens J, Harle J, Allison EH, Allen JI, Holt J, Jennings S (2014) Impacts of climate change on marine ecosystem production in societies dependent on fisheries. Nat Clim Change 4(March):211–216. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2119
Barbier EB (2017) Marine ecosystem services. Curr Biol 27(11):R507–R510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.03.020
Bates AE, Cooke RSC, Duncan MI, Edgar GJ, Brunoi JF, Benedetti-Cecchi L, Côté IM et al (2019) Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection Paradox’. Biol Conserv 236(August):305–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.05.005
Bax NJ, Appeltans W, Brainard R, Duffy JE, Dunstan P, Hanich Q, Harden Davies H et al (2018) Linking capacity development to GOOS monitoring networks to achieve sustained ocean observation. Front Mar Sci 5(September):346. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00346
Bayraktarov E, Saunders MI, Abdullah S, Mills M, Beher J, Possingham HP, Mumby PJ, Lovelock CE (2016) The cost and feasibility of marine coastal restoration. Ecol Appl 26(4):1055–1074. https://doi.org/10.1890/15-1077
Beaulieu SE, Szafranski K (2018) InterRidge global database of active submarine hydrothermal vent fields. Version 3.4. http://vents-data.interridge.org
Beck MW, Losada IJ, Menéndez P, Reguero BG, Díaz-Simal P, Fernández F (2018) The global flood protection savings provided by coral reefs. Nat Commun 9(June):2186. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04568-z
Belhabib D, Sumaila UR, Lam VWY, Zeller D, Le Billon P, Abou Kane E, Pauly D (2015) Euros vs. Yuan: comparing European and Chinese fishing access in West Africa. PloS One 10(3):e0118351. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118351
Bell JB, Guijarro-Garcia E, Kenny A (2019) Demersal fishing in areas beyond national jurisdiction: a comparative analysis of regional fisheries management organisations. Front Mar Sci 6(October):596. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00596
Bennett S, Wernberg T, Connell SD, Hobday AJ, Johnson CR, Poloczanska ES (2016) The ‘Great Southern Reef’: social, ecological and economic value of Australia’s neglected kelp forests. Mar Freshw Res 67(1):47–56. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF15232
Blanchard JL, Watson RA, Fulton EA, Cottrell RS, Nash KL, Bryndum-Buchholz A, Büchner M et al (2017) Linked sustainability challenges and trade- offs among fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture. Nat Ecol Evol 1(September):1240–1249. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0258-8
Blasiak R, Wynberg R, Grorud-Colvert K, Thambisetty S, Bandarra N, Canário AVM, da Silva J et al (2020) The ocean genome: conservation and the fair, equitable and sustainable use of marine genetic resources. In: Blue Paper 4, High level panel for a sustainable ocean economy. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC
Block BA, Jonsen ID, Jorgensen S, Winship AJ, Shaffer SA, Bograd SJ, Hazen EL et al (2011) Tracking apex marine predator movements in a dynamic ocean. Nature 475(July):86–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10082
Boerder K, Miller NA, Worm B (2018) Global hot spots of transhipment of fish catch at sea. Sci Adv 4(7):eaat7159. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat7159
Bongiorno DL, Bryson M, Bridge TCL, Dansereau DG, Williams SB (2018) Coregistered hyperspectral and stereo image seafloor mapping from an autonomous underwater vehicle. J Field Robot 35(3):312–329. https://doi.org/10.1002/rob.21713
Bonney R, Shirk JL, Phillips TB, Wiggins A, Ballard HL, Miller-Rushing AJ, Parrish JK (2014) Next steps for citizen science. Science 343(6178):1436–1437. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251554
Boyes SJ, Elliott M (2014) Marine legislation: the ultimate ‘Horrendogram’: International Law, European Directives & National Implementation. Mar Pollut Bull 86(1–2):39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.055
Bozec YM, O'Farrell S, Bruggemann JH, Luckhurst BE, Mumby PJ (2016) Tradeoffs between fisheries harvest and the resilience of coral reefs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(16):4536–4541. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1601529113
Bradley D, Merrifield M, Miller KM, Lomonico S, Wilson JR, Gleason MG (2019) Opportunities to improve fisheries management through innovative technology and advanced data systems. Fish Fish 20(3):564–583. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12361
Breitburg D, Levin LA, Oschlies A, Grégoire M, Chavez FP, Conley DJ, Garçon V et al (2018) Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters. Science 359(6371):eaam7240. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam7240
Briggs JC (2007) Marine longitudinal biodiversity: causes and conservation. Divers Distrib 13(5):544–555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00362.x
Britten GL, Dowd M, Kanary L, Worm B (2017) Extended fisheries recovery timelines in a changing environment. Nat Commun 8(May):15325. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15325
Bruckner AW, Johnson KA, Field JD (2003) Conservation strategies for sea cucumbers: can a CITES Appendix II listing promote sustainable international trade? SPC Beche-de-mer Inform Bull 18(May):24–33
Burfeind DD, Pitt KA, Connolly RM, Byers JE (2013) Performance of non-native species within marine reserves. Biol Invasions 15:17–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-012-0265-2
Burgess MG, McDermott GR, Owashi B, Peavey Reeves LE, Clavelle T, Ovando D, Wallace BP et al (2018) Protecting marine mammals, turtles, and birds by rebuilding global fisheries. Science 359(6381):1255–1258. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao4248
Burrows MT, Schoeman DS, Buckley LB, Moore P, Poloczanska ES, Brander KM, Brown C et al (2011) The pace of shifting climate in marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Science 334(6056):652–655. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1210288
Burrows MT, Schoeman DS, Richardson AJ, Molinos JG, Hoffmann A, Buckley LB, Moore PJ et al (2014) Geographical limits to species-range shifts are suggested by climate velocity. Nature 507(March):492–495. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12976
Burrows MT, Bates AE, Costello MJ, Edwards M, Edgar GJ, Fox CJ, Halpern BS et al (2019) Ocean community warming responses explained by thermal affinities and temperature gradients. Nat Clim Change 9(December):959–963. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0631-5
Canonico G, Buttigieg PL, Montes E, Muller-Karger FE, Stepien C, Wright D, Benson A et al (2019) Global observational needs and resources for marine biodiversity. Front Mar Sci 6(July):367. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00367
Carpenter KE, Abrar M, Aeby G, Aronson RB, Banks S, Bruckner A, Chiriboga A et al (2008) One-third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change and local impacts. Science 321(5888):560–563. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1159196
CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) (2009) Azores scientific criteria and guidance for identifying ecologically or biologically significant areas and designing representative networks of marine protected areas in open ocean waters and deep sea habitats. CBD Secretariat, Quebec. https://www.cbd.int/marine/doc/azores-brochure-en.pdf
Chaudhary C, Saeedi H, Costello MJ (2016) Bimodality of latitudinal gradients in marine species richness. Trends Ecol Evol 31(9):670–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.06.001
Chavez FP, Ryan J, Lluch-Cota SE, Niquen M (2003) From anchovies to sardines and back: multidecadal decadal change in the Pacific. Science 299(5604):217–221. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1075880
Cheng BS, Altieri AH, Torchin ME, Ruiz GM (2019) Can marine reserves restore lost ecosystem functioning? a global synthesis. Ecology 100(4):e02617. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2617
Cheung WWL, Pitcher TJ, Pauly D (2005) A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing. Biol Conserv 124(1):97–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.017
Cheung WWL, Lam VW, Sarmiento JI, Kearney K, Watson R, Pauly D (2009) Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios. Fish Fish 10(3):235–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00315.x
Cheung WWL, Lam VW, Sarmiento JI, Kearney K, Watson R, Zeller D, Pauly D (2010) Large-scale redistribution of maximum fisheries catch potential in the global ocean under climate change. Glob Chang Biol 16(1):24–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01995.x
Cheung WWL, Watson R, Pauly D (2013) Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch. Nature 497(May):365–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12156
Christensen V, Coll M, Piroddi C, Steenbeek J, Buszowski J, Pauly D (2014) A century of fish biomass decline in the ocean. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 512(October):155–166. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10946
Cinner J, McClanahan T, Daw TM, Graham NAJ, Maina J, Wilson SK, Hughes TP (2009) Linking social and ecological systems to sustain coral reef fisheries. Curr Biol 19(3):206–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.11.055
Cisneros-Mata MA, Montemayor-López G, Nevárez-Martínez MO (1996) Modeling deterministic effects of age structure, density dependence, environmental forcing, and fishing in the population dynamics of Sardinops sagax caeruleus in the Gulf of California. Calif Cooper Ocean Fish Investig Rep 37(October):201–208. https://www.calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v37/CalCOFI_Rpt_Vol_37_1996.pdf
Claar DC, Szostek L, McDevitt-Irwin JM, Schanze JJ, Baum JK (2018) Global patterns and impacts of El Niño events on coral reefs: a meta-analysis. PloS One 13(2):e0190957. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190957
Clark NA, Ardron JA, Pendleton LH (2015) Evaluating the basic elements of transparency of regional fisheries management organizations. Mar Policy 57(July):158–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.03.003
Clark MR, Althaus F, Schlacher TA, Williams A, Bowden DA, Rowden AA (2016) The impacts of deep-sea fisheries on benthic communities: a review. ICES J Mar Sci 73(1):51–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsv123
Clarke A, Crame JA (1997) Diversity, latitude and time: patterns in the Shallow sea. In: Ormond RFG, Gage JD, Angel MV (eds) Marine biodiversity: patterns and processes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 122–147
Collins MA, Villanueva R (2006) Taxonomy, ecology and behaviour of the cirrate octopods. In: Gibson RN, Atkinson RJA, Gordon JDM (eds) Oceanography and marine biology: an annual review, vol 44. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 277–222. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420006391
Colyvan M, Justus J, Regan HM (2010) The natural environment is valuable but not infinitely valuable. Conserv Lett 3(4):224–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00118.x
Constable AJ (2011) Lessons from CCAMLR on the implementation of the ecosystem approach to managing fisheries. Fish Fish 12(2):138–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00410.x
Costanza R, D’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K et al (1997) The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387(May):253–260. https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0
Costanza R, de Groot R, Sutton P, van der Ploeg S, Anderson SJ, Kubiszewski I, Farber S, Turner RK (2014) Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob Environ Chang 26(May):152–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.002
Costello MJ, Coll M, Danovaro R, Halpin P, Ojaveer H, Miloslavich P (2010) A census of marine biodiversity knowledge, resources, and future challenges. PloS One 5(8):e12110. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0012110
Costello C, Ovando D, Hilborn R, Gaines SD, Deschenes O, Lester SE (2012) Status and solutions for the world’s unassessed fisheries. Science 338(6106):517–520. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1223389
Costello C, Ovando D, Clavelle T, Strauss CK, Hilborn R, Melnychuk MC, Branch TA et al (2016) Global fishery prospects under contrasting management regimes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(18):5125–5129. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1520420113
Costello C, Cao L, Gelcich S, Cisneros MA, Free CM, Froehlich HE, Galarza E et al (2019) The future of food from the sea. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. www.oceanpanel.org/future-food-sea
Courchamp F, Angulo E, Rivalan P, Hall RJ, Signoret L, Bull L, Meinard Y (2006) Rarity value and species extinction: the anthropogenic allee effect. PLoS Biol 4(12):e415. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040415
Crame JA, Clarke A (1997) The historical component of marine taxonomic diversity gradients. In: Ormond RFG, Gage JD, Angel MV (eds) Marine biodiversity: patterns and processes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 258–273
Crawford B, Kasmidi M, Korompis F, Pollnac RB (2006) Factors influencing progress in establishing community-based marine protected areas in Indonesia. Coast Manag 34(1):39–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920750500379300
Cruz-Motta JJ, Miloslavich P, Palomo G, Iken K, Konar B, Pohle G, Trott T et al (2010) Patterns of spatial variation of assemblages associated with intertidal rocky shores: a global perspective. PloS One 5(12):e14354. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014354
Cubaynes HC, Fretwell PT, Bamford C, Gerrish L, Jackson JA (2019) Whales from space: four mysticete species described using new VHR satellite imagery. Mar Mamm Sci 35(2):466–491. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12544
Cullis-Suzuki S, Pauly D (2010) Failing the high seas: a global evaluation of regional fisheries management organizations. Mar Policy 34(5):1036–1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.03.002
Cury P, Bakun A, Crawford RJM, Jarre-Teichmann A, Quiñones RA, Shannon LJ, Verheye HM (2000) Small pelagics in upwelling systems: patterns of interaction and structural changes in ‘wasp-waist’ ecosystems. ICES J Mar Sci 57(3):603–618. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmsc.2000.0712
Cury PM, Boyd IL, Bonhommeau S, Anker-Nilssen T, Crawford RJM, Furness RW, Mills JA et al (2011) Global seabird responses to forage fish depletion—one-third for the birds. Science 334(6063):1703–1706. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1212928
Danovaro R, Gambi C, D’ll’anno A, Corinaldesi C, Fraschetti S, Vanreusel A, Vincx M, Gooday AJ (2008) Exponential decline of deep-sea ecosystem functioning linked to benthic biodiversity loss. Curr Biol 18(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.056
Daskalov GM, Grishin AN, Rodionov S, Mihneva V (2007) Trophic cascades triggered by overfishing reveal possible mechanisms of ecosystem regime shifts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(25):10518–10523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701100104
Davies TD, Baum JK (2012) Extinction risk and overfishing: reconciling conservation and fisheries perspectives on the status of marine fishes. Sci Rep 2(August):561. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00561
Davies RG, Irlich UM, Chown SL, Gaston KJ (2010) Ambient, productive and wind energy, and ocean extent predict global species richness of procellariiform seabirds. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 19(1):98–110. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00498.x
de Bruyn P, Murua H, Aranda M (2013) The precautionary approach to fisheries management: how this is taken into account by Tuna Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs). Mar Policy 38(March):397–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.06.019
de Groot R, Brander L, van der Ploeg S, Costanza R, Bernard F, Braat L, Christie M et al (2012) Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosyst Serv 1(1):50–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.07.005
de los Santos CB, Krause-Jensen D, Alcoverro T, Marbà N, Duarte CM, van Katwijk MM, Pérez M et al (2019) Recent trend reversal for declining european seagrass meadows. Nat Commun 10:3356. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11340-4
de Vargas C, Audic S, Henry N, Decelle J, Mahé F, Logares R, Lara E et al (2015) Eukaryotic plankton diversity in the sunlit ocean. Science 348(6237):1261605. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261605
Di Franco A, Thiriet P, Di Carlo G, Dimitriadis C, Francour P, Gutiérrez NL, de Grissac AJ et al (2016) Five key attributes can increase marine protected areas performance for small-scale fisheries management. Sci Rep 6(December):38135. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38135
Di Lorenzo M, Claudet J, Guidetti P (2016) Spillover from marine protected areas to adjacent fisheries has an ecological and a fishery component. J Nat Conserv 32(July):62–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2016.04.004
Dias MP, Martin R, Pearmain EJ, Burfield IJ, Small C, Phillips RA, Yates O et al (2019) Threats to seabirds: a global assessment. Biol Conserv 237(September):525–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.06.033
Diaz-Pulido G, McCook LJ, Dove S, Berkelmans R, Roff G, Kline DI, Weeks S et al (2009) Doom and boom on a resilient reef: climate change, algal overgrowth and coral recovery. PloS One 4(4):e5239. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005239
Diz D, Johnson D, Riddell M, Rees S, Battle J, Gjerde K, Hennige S, Roberts JM (2018) Mainstreaming marine biodiversity into the SDGs: the role of other effective area-based conservation measures (SDG 14.5). Mar Policy 93(July):251–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.019
Dornelas M, Gotelli NJ, McGill B, Shimadzu H, Moyes F, Sievers C, Magurran AE (2014) Assemblage time series reveal biodiversity change but not systematic loss. Science 344(6181):296–299. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1248484
Duarte CM, Losada IJ, Hendriks IE, Mazarrasa I, Marbà N (2013a) The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nat Clim Change 3(November):961–968. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1970
Duarte CM, Sintes T, Marbà N (2013b) Assessing the CO2 capture potential of seagrass restoration projects. J Appl Ecol 50(6):1341–1349. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12155
Duarte CM, Wu J, Xiao X, Bruhn A, Krause-Jensen D (2017) Can seaweed farming play a role in climate change mitigation and adaptation? Front Mar Sci 4(April):100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00100
Duarte CM, Agusti S, Barbier E, Britten GL, Castilla JC, Gattuso J-P, Fulweiler RW, Hughes TP et al (2020) Rebuilding marine life. Nature 580:39–51. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2146-7
Duffy JE, Lefcheck JS, Stuart-Smith RD, Navarrete SA, Edgar GJ (2016) Biodiversity enhances reef fish biomass and resistance to climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(22):6230–6235. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1524465113
Dulvy NK, Sadovy Y, Reynolds JD (2003) Extinction vulnerability in marine populations. Fish Fish 4(1):25–64. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-2979.2003.00105.x
Dulvy NK, Fowler SL, Musick JA, Cavanagh RD, Kyne PM, Harrison LR, Carlson JK et al (2014) Extinction risk and conservation of the world’s sharks and rays. Elife 3:e00590. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00590
Durden JM, Lallier LE, Murphy K, Jaeckel A, Gjerde K, Jones DOB (2018) Environmental impact assessment process for deep-sea mining in ‘the area’. Mar Policy 87(January):194–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.10.013
Dureuil M, Boerder K, Burnett KA, Froese R, Worm B (2018) Elevated trawling inside protected areas undermines conservation outcomes in a global fishing hot spot. Science 362(6421):1403–1407. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau0561
Edgar GJ, Langhammer PF, Allen G, Brooks TM, Brodie J, Crosse W, De Silva N et al (2008) Key biodiversity areas as globally significant target sites for the conservation of marine biological diversity. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 18(6):969–983. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.902
Edgar GJ, Stuart-Smith RD, Willis TJ, Kininmonth S, Baker SC, Banks S, Barrett NS et al (2014) Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature 506(February):216–220. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13022
Edgar GJ, Bates AE, Bird TJ, Jones AH, Kininmonth S, Stuart-Smith RD, Webb TJ (2016) New approaches to marine conservation through scaling up of ecological data. Ann Rev Mar Sci 8(January):435–461. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-122414-033921
Edgar GJ, Alexander TJ, Lefcheck JS, Bates AE, Kininmonth SJ, Thomson RJ, Duffy JE, Costello MJ, Stuart-Smith RD (2017) Abundance and local-scale processes contribute to multi-phyla gradients in global marine diversity. Sci Adv 3(10):e1700419. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700419
Edgar GJ, Ward TJ, Stuart-Smith RD (2019) Weaknesses in stock assessment modelling and management practices affect fisheries sustainability. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 29:2010–2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3161
Eigaard OR, Bastardie F, Hintzen NT, Buhl-Mortensen L, Buhl-Mortensen P, Catarino R, Dinesen GE et al (2017) The footprint of bottom trawling in european waters: distribution, intensity, and seabed integrity. ICES J Mar Sci 74(3):847–865. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsw194
EIU (Economist Intelligence Unit) (2015) The blue economy: growth, opportunity and a sustainable ocean economy. EIU, New York
Elvidge CD, Ghosh T, Baugh K, Zhizhin M, Hsu FC, Katada NS, Penalosa W, Hung BQ (2018) Rating the effectiveness of fishery closures with visible infrared imaging radiometer suite boat detection data. Front Mar Sci 5(April):132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00132
Ens EJ, Pert P, Clarke PA, Budden M, Clubb L, Doran B, Douras C et al (2015) Indigenous biocultural knowledge in ecosystem science and management: review and insight from Australia. Biol Conserv 181(January):133–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.008
Erisman B, Heyman W, Kobara S, Ezer T, Pittman S, Aburto-Oropeza O, Nemeth RS (2015) Fish spawning aggregations: where well-placed management actions yield big benefits for fisheries and conservation. Fish Fish 18(1):121–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12132
Estes JA, Terborgh J, Brashares JS, Power ME, Berger J, Bond WJ, Carpenter SR et al (2011) Trophic downgrading of planet earth. Science 333(6040):301–306. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1205106
FAO (2011) FAO technical guidelines for responsible fisheries: fisheries management—4. Marine protected areas and fisheries. No. 4, Suppl. 4. FAO, Rome
FAO (2018) The State of world fisheries and aquaculture 2018—meeting the sustainable development goals. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2008) The FAO International guidelines for the management of deep-sea fisheries in the high seas. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, FAO, Rome
Fautin D, Dalton P, Incze LS, Leong JAC, Pautzke C, Rosenberg A, Sandifer P et al (2010) An overview of marine biodiversity in United States waters. PloS One 5(8):e11914. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011914
Fernandes PG, Cook RM (2013) Reversal of fish stock decline in the Northeast Atlantic. Curr Biol 23(15):1432–1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.06.016
Fernandes PG, Ralph GM, Nieto A, Criado MG, Vasilakopoulos P, Maravelias CD, Cook RM et al (2017) Coherent assessments of Europe’s marine fishes show regional divergence and megafauna loss. Nat Ecol Evol 1(May):0170. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0170
Fischer AG (1960) Latitudinal variations in organic diversity. Evolution 14(1):64–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1960.tb03057.x
Fisher R, O’Leary RA, Low-Choy S, Mengersen K, Knowlton N, Brainard RE, Caley MJ (2015) Species richness on coral reefs and the pursuit of convergent global estimates. Curr Biol 25(4):500–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.022
Foglini F, Grande V, Marchese F, Bracchi VA, Prampolini M, Angeletti L, Castellan G et al (2019) Application of hyperspectral imaging to underwater habitat mapping, Southern Adriatic Sea. Sensors 19(10):2261. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102261
Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS (2004) Regime shifts, resilience and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 35(December):557–581. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711
Ford AK, Bejarano S, Nugues MM, Visser PM, Albert S, Ferse SCA (2018a) Reefs under siege—the rise, putative drivers, and consequences of benthic cyanobacterial mats. Front Mar Sci 5(February):18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00018
Ford JH, Bergseth B, Wilcox C (2018b) Chasing the fish oil—do bunker vessels hold the key to fisheries crime networks? Front Mar Sci 5(August):267. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00267
Ford JH, Peel D, Hardesty BD, Rosebrock U, Wilcox C (2018c) Loitering with intent—catching the outlier vessels at sea. PloS One 13(7):e0200189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200189
Fossheim M, Primicerio R, Johannesen E, Ingvaldsen RB, Aschan MM, Dolgov AV (2015) Recent warming leads to a rapid borealization of fish communities in the Arctic. Nat Clim Change 5(July):673–677. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2647
Frank KT, Petrie B, Choi JS, Leggett WC (2005) Trophic cascades in a formerly cod-dominated ecosystem. Science 308(5728):1621–1623. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1113075
Freduah G, Fidelman P, Smith TF (2017) The impacts of environmental and socio-economic stressors on small scale fisheries and livelihoods of fishers in Ghana. Appl Geogr 89(December):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.09.009
Freiwald A, Rogers A, Hall-Spencer J, Guinotte JM, Davies AJ, Yesson C, Martin CS, Weatherdon LV (2017) Global distribution of cold-water corals. Version 5.0. Fifth update to the data set in Freiwald et al. (2004). http://data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/3
Friedman K, Garcia SM, Rice J (2018) Mainstreaming biodiversity in fisheries. Mar Policy 95(September):209–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.03.001
Friess DA, Rogers K, Lovelock CE, Krauss KW, Hamilton SE, Lee SY, Lucas R, Primavera J et al (2019) The State of the World’s mangrove forests: past, present, and future. Annu Rev Env Resour 44:89–115. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033302
Gagné TO, Hyrenbach KD, Hagemann ME, Van Houtan KS (2018) Trophic signatures of seabirds suggest shifts in oceanic ecosystems. Sci Adv 4(2):eaao3946. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao3946
Gagné TO, Reygondeau G, Jenkins CN, Sexton JO, Bograd SJ, Hazen EL et al (2020) Towards a global understanding of the drivers of marine and terrestrial biodiversity. PloS One 15(2):e0228065. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228065
Gaines SD, Lubchenco J (1982) A unified approach to marine plant-herbivore interactions II. Biogeographic patterns. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 13:111–138. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2097064
Gaines SD, White C, Carr MH, Palumbi SR (2010) Designing marine reserve networks for both conservation and fisheries management. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:18286–18293. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0906473107
Gamfeldt L, Lefcheck JS, Byrnes JEK, Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Griffin JN (2014) Marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: what’s known and what’s next? Oikos 124(3):252–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.01549
Gangloff MM, Edgar GJ, Wilson B (2016) Imperilled species in aquatic ecosystems: emerging threats, management and future prognoses. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 26(5):858–871. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2707
Garcia SM (2010) Governance, science, and society: the ecosystem approach to fisheries. In: Grafton RQ, Hilborn R, Squires D, Tait M, Williams M (eds) Handbook of marine fisheries conservation and management. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 87–98
Gattuso JP, Magnan A, Billé R, Cheung W, Howes EL, Joos F, Allemand D et al (2015) Contrasting futures for ocean and society from different anthropogenic CO2 emissions scenarios. Science 349(6243):aac4722. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4722
Gedan KB, Silliman BR, Bertness MD (2009) Centuries of human-driven change in salt marsh ecosystems. Ann Rev Mar Sci 1:117–141. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163930
Gell FR, Roberts CM (2003) Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves. Trends Ecol Evol 18(9):448–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00189-7
Gill DA, Mascia MB, Ahmadia GN, Glew L, Lester SE, Barnes M, Craigie I et al (2017) Capacity shortfalls hinder the performance of marine protected areas globally. Nature 543(March):665–669. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21708
Gilman E, Kingma E (2013) Standard for assessing transparency in information on compliance with obligations of regional fisheries management organizations: validation through assessment of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission. Ocean Coast Manag 84(November):31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.07.006
Gilman E, Passfield K, Nakamura K (2014) Performance of regional fisheries management organizations: ecosystem-based governance of bycatch and discards. Fish Fish 15(2):327–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12021
Gilman E, Weijerman M, Suuronen P (2017) Ecological data from observer programmes underpin ecosystem-based fisheries management. ICES J Mar Sci 74(6):1481–1495. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsx032
Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011) Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data: status and distributions of global mangroves. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 20(1):154–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x
Gjerde KM, Currie D, Wowk K, Sack K (2013) Ocean in Peril: reforming the management of global ocean living resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Mar Pollut Bull 74(2):540–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.07.037
Gorelick N, Hancher M, Dixon M, Ilyushchenko S, Thau D, Moore R (2017) Google Earth Engine: planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sens Environ 202(1):18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031
Grady JM, Maitner BS, Winter AS, Kaschner K, Tittensor DP, Record S, Smith FA et al (2019) Metabolic asymmetry and the global diversity of marine predators. Science 363(6425):eaat4220. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat4220
Graham NAJ, Jennings S, MacNeil MA, Mouillot D, Wilson SK (2015) Predicting climate-driven regime shifts versus rebound potential in coral reefs. Nature 518(February):94–97. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14140
Green EP, Mumby PJ, Edwards AJ, Clark CD (2000) Remote Sensing Handbook Tropical Coastal Management. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris
Grémillet D, Ponchon A, Paleczny M, Palomares MLD, Karpouzi V, Pauly D (2018) Persisting worldwide seabird-fishery competition despite seabird community decline. Curr Biol 28(24):4009–4013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.10.051
Guannel G, Arkema K, Ruggiero P, Verutes G (2016) The power of three: coral reefs, seagrasses and mangroves protect coastal regions and increase their resilience. PloS One 11(7):e0158094. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158094
Guillemette M, Grégoire F, Bouillet D, Rail JF, Bolduc F, Caron A, Pelletier D (2018) Breeding failure of seabirds in relation to fish depletion: is there one universal threshold of food abundance? Mar Ecol Prog Ser 587(January):235–245. https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m587p235.pdf
Gurney GG, Cinner J, Ban N, Pressey RL, Campbell SJ, Tasidjawa S, Setiwan F (2014) Poverty and protected areas: an evaluation of a marine integrated conservation and development project in Indonesia. Glob Environ Chang 26(May):98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.003
Haas AF, Fairoz MFM, Kelly LW, Nelson CE, Dinsdale EA, Edwards RA, Giles S et al (2016) Global microbialization of coral reefs. Nat Microbiol 1(April):16042. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.42
Haas B, Haward M, McGee J, Fleming A (2019) The influence of performance reviews on regional fisheries management organizations. ICES J Mar Sci 76(7):2082–2089. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsz088
Halpern BS (2003) The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does reserve size matter? Ecol Appl 13(Sp1):S117–S137. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0117:TIOMRD]2.0.CO;2
Halpern BS, Walbridge S, Selkoe KA, Kappel CV, Micheli F, D’Agrosa C, Bruno JF et al (2008) A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319(5865):948–952. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1149345
Halpern BS, Lester SE, Kellner JB (2010) Spillover from marine reserves and the replenishment of fished stocks. Environ Conserv 36(4):268–276. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892910000032
Halpern BS, Frazier M, Potapenko J, Casey KS, Koenig K, Longo C, Lowndes JS et al (2015) Spatial and temporal changes in cumulative human impacts on the world’s ocean. Nat Commun 6(July):7615. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8615
Halpern BS, Frazier M, Afflerbach J, Lowndes JS, Micheli F, O’Hara C, Scarborough C, Selkoe KA (2019) Recent pace of change in human impact on the world’s ocean. Sci Rep 9(August):11609. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47201-9
Hansen RE (2011) Introduction to synthetic aperture sonar. In: Kolev NZ (ed) Sonar systems. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia, pp 3–28. https://doi.org/10.5772/23122
Hare SR, Mantua NJ (2000) Empirical evidence for North Pacific Regime Shifts in 1977 and 1989. Prog Oceanogr 47(2–4):103–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6611(00)00033-1
Harris PT (2020) Anthropogenic threats to benthic habitats. In: Harris PT, Baker EK (eds) Seafloor geomorphology as benthic habitat: Geohab atlas of seafloor geomorphic features and benthic habitats. Elsevier, London, pp 35–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385140-6.00003-7
Harris PT, Baker EK (2012) Why Map Benthic Habitats? In: Harris PT, Baker EK (eds) Seafloor geomorphology as benthic habitat: Geohab atlas of seafloor geomorphic features and benthic habitats. Elsevier, London, pp 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385140-6.00001-3
Harris PT, Macmillan-Lawler M, Rupp J, Baker EK (2014) Geomorphology of the oceans. Mar Geol 352(1):4–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2014.01.011
Harrison PA, Berry PM, Simpson G, Haslett JR, Blicharska M, Bucur M, Dunford R et al (2014) Linkages between biodiversity attributes and ecosystem services: a systematic review. Ecosyst Serv 9(September):191–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.05.006
Hector A, Bagchi R (2007) Biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality. Nature 448(7150):188–190. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05947
Heery EC, Bishop MJ, Critchley LP, Bugnot AB, Airoldi L, Mayer-Pinto M, Sheehan EV et al (2017) Identifying the consequences of ocean sprawl for sedimentary habitats. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 492(July):31–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jejmbe.2017.01.020
Heino M, Díaz Pauli B, Dieckmann U (2015) Fisheries-induced evolution. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 46(December):461–480. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054339
Hilborn R (2018) Are MPAs effective? ICES J Mar Sci 75(3):1160–1162. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsx068
Hilborn R, Ovando D (2014) Reflections on the success of traditional fisheries management. ICES J Mar Sci 71(5):1040–1046. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsu034
Hilborn R, Amoroso RO, Anderson CM, Baum JK, Branch TA, Costello C, de Moor CL et al (2020) Effective fisheries management instrumental in improving fish stock status. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 117(4):2218–2224. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1909726116
Hobday AJ, Oliver ECJ, Sen Gupta A, Benthuysen JA, Burrows MT, Donat MG, Holbrook NJ et al (2018) Categorizing and naming marine heatwaves. Oceanography 31(2):162–173. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2018.205
Hochard JP, Hamilton S, Barbier EB (2019) Mangroves shelter coastal economic activity from cyclones. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 116(25):12232–12237. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820067116
Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P et al (2007) Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318(5857):1737–1742. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152509
Hoegh-Guldberg O, Caldeira K, Chopin T, Gaines S, Haugan P, Hemer M, Howard J et al (2019) The ocean as a solution to climate change: five opportunities for action. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. http://www.oceanpanel.org/climate
Hooff RC, Peterson WT (2006) Copepod biodiversity as an indicator of changes in ocean and climate conditions of the Northern California current ecosystem. Limnol Oceanogr 51(6):2607–2620. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2006.51.6.2607
Hooper T, Börger T, Langmead O, Marcone O, Rees SE, Rendon O, Beaumont N, Attrill MJ, Austen M (2019) Applying the natural capital approach to decision making for the marine environment. Ecosyst Serv 38(August):100947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.100947
Hsieh CH, Reiss CS, Hunter JR, Beddington JR, May RM, Sugihara G (2006) Fishing elevates variability in the abundance of exploited species. Nature 443(October):859–862. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05232
Hughes RG (2004) Climate change and loss of saltmarshes: consequences for birds. Ibis 146(s1):21–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00324.x
Hughes TP, Rodrigues MJ, Bellwood DR, Ceccarelli D, Hoegh-Guldberg O, McCook L, Moltschaniwsky N et al (2007) Phase shifts, herbivory, and the resilience of coral reefs to climate change. Curr Biol 17(4):360–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.049
Hughes TP, Barnes ML, Bellwood DR, Cinner JE, Cumming GS, Jackson JBC, Kleypas J et al (2017) Coral reefs in the anthropocene. Nature 546(June):82–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22901
Hughes TP, Anderson KD, Connolly SR, Heron SF, Kerry JT, Lough JM, Baird AH et al (2018a) Spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching of corals in the anthropocene. Science 359(6371):80–83. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan8048
Hughes TP, Kerry JT, Baird AH, Connolly SR, Dietzel A, Eakin CM, Heron SF et al (2018b) Global warming transforms coral reef assemblages. Nature 556(April):492–496. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0041-2
Humphries GRW, Velarde E, Anderson DW, Haasey B, Sydeman WJ (2015) Seabirds as early warning indicators of climate events in the North Pacific. PICES Press 23(1):18–20. http://aquaticcommons.org/21569/1/PPJanuary2015.pdf
Iken K, Konar B (2003) Natural Geography in Nearshore Areas (NaGISA): the nearshore component of the census of marine life. Gayana 67(2):153–160. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-65382003000200004
IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) (2019) In: Díaz S, Brondízio JSES, Ngo HT, Guèze M, Agard J, Arneth A et al (eds) Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Secretariat, Bonn. https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/2020-02/ipbes_global_assessment_report_summary_for_policymakers_en.pdf
IPCC (2019) In: Pörtner HO, Roberts DC, Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Tignor M, Poloczanska E, Mintenbeck K et al (eds) IPCC special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate. IPCC, Geneva
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2018) Global warming of 1.5°C. In: Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pörtner HO, Roberts D, Skea J, Shukla PR, Pirani A et al (eds) An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. IPCC, Geneva
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) (2016) Increasing marine protected area coverage for effective marine biodiversity conservation. In: Prepared for the World Conservation Congress 2016, Resolution 050, Hawaii, September 1–10. https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/resrecfiles/WCC_2016_RES_050_EN.pdf
IUCN (2017) Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria. Version 13. IUCN, Standards and Petitions Subcommittee, Gland
IUCN (2019) The IUCN Red List of threatened species. IUCN, Gland. https://www.iucnredlist.org
IUCN-WCPA (World Commission on Protected Areas) (2019) Recognising and reporting other effective area-based conservation measures. IUCN, Gland. https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/PATRS-003-En.pdf
Jablonski D, Roy K, Valentine JW (2006) Out of the tropics: evolutionary dynamics of the latitudinal diversity gradient. Science 314(5796):102–106. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1130880
Jablonski D, Belanger CL, Berke SK, Huang S, Krug AZ, Roy K, Tomasovych A, Valentine JW (2013) Out of the tropics, but how? Fossils, bridge species, and thermal ranges in the dynamics of the marine latitudinal diversity gradient. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110(26):10487–10494. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1308997110
Jackson JBC, Kirby MX, Berger WH, Bjorndal KA, Botsford LW, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH et al (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293(5530):629–638. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059199
Jaramillo-Legorreta AM, Cardenas-Hinojosa G, Nieto-Garcia E, Rojas-Bracho L, Thomas L, Ver Hoef JM, Moore J et al (2019) Decline towards extinction of Mexico’s Vaquita Porpoise (Phocoena sinus). R Soc Open Sci 6(7):190598. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190598
Jenkins CN, Van Houten KS (2016) Global and regional priorities for marine biodiversity protection. Biol Conserv 204(part B (December)):333–339
Jones KR, Klein CJ, Halpern BS, Venter O, Grantham H, Kuempel CD, Shumway N et al (2018) The location and protection status of earth’s diminishing marine wilderness. Curr Biol 28(15):2506–2512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.010
Jones KR, Klein CJ, Grantham HS, Possingham HP, Halpern BS, Burgess ND, Butchart SHM, Robinson JG et al (2020) Area requirements to safeguard earth’s marine species. One Earth 2(2):188–196
Kaiser MJ (2005) Are marine protected areas a red herring or fisheries panacea? Can J Fish Aquat Sci 62(5):1194–1199. https://doi.org/10.1139/f05-056
Keith SA, Kerswell AP, Connolly SR (2014) Global diversity of marine macroalgae: environmental conditions explain less variation in the tropics. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 23(5):517–529. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12132
Kerswell AP (2006) Global biodiversity patterns of benthic marine algae. Ecology 87(10):2479–2488. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[2479:gbpobm]2.0.co;2
Klein CJ, Brown CJ, Halpern BS, Segan DB, McGowan J, Beger M, Watson JEM (2015) Shortfalls in the global protected area network at representing marine biodiversity. Sci Rep 5:17539. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17539
Kockel A, Ban NC, Costa M, Dearden P (2019) Evaluating approaches for scaling up community-based marine protected areas into socially equitable and ecologically representative networks. Conserv Biol 34(1):137–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13368
Krause-Jensen D, Duarte CM (2016) Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration. Nat Geosci 9(October):737–742. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2790
Krause-Jensen D, Lavery P, Serrano O, Marbà N, Masque P, Duarte CM (2018) Sequestration of macroalgal carbon: the elephant in the blue carbon room. Biol Lett 14(6):20180236. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0236
Kroodsma DA, Mayorga J, Hochberg T, Miller NA, Boerder K, Ferretti F, Wilson A et al (2018) Tracking the global footprint of fisheries. Science 359(6378):904–908. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao5646
Krumhansl KA, Okamoto DK, Rassweiler A, Novak M, Bolton JJ, Cavanaugh KC, Connell SD et al (2016) Global patterns of kelp forest change over the past half-century. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(48):13785–13790. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1606102113
Kuempel CD, Jones KR, Watson JEM, Possingham HP (2019) Quantifying biases in marine-protected-area placement relative to abatable threats. Conserv Biol 33(6):1350–1359. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13340
Kuparinen A, Festa-Bianchet M (2017) Harvest-induced evolution: insights from aquatic and terrestrial systems. Philos Trans R Soc B 372(1712):20160036. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0036
Lamarche G, Orpin AR, Mitchell JS, Pallentin A (2016) Benthic habitat mapping. In: Clark MR, Consalvey M, Rowden AA (eds) Biological sampling in the deep sea. Blackwell, Chichester, pp 80–102. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118332535.ch5
Langle-Flores A, Ocelík P, Pérez-Maqueo O (2017) “The role of social networks in the sustainability transformation of cabo pulmo: a multiplex perspective,” in “Coastal resilience: exploring the many challenges from different viewpoints,” edited by M.L. Martinez, A. Taramelli, and R. Silva, special issue. J Coast Res 77(77):134–142. https://doi.org/10.2112/SI77-014.1
Lefcheck JS, Byrnes JEK, Isbell F, Gamfeldt L, Griffin JN, Eisenhauer N, Hensel MJS et al (2015) Biodiversity enhances ecosystem multifunctionality across trophic levels and habitats. Nat Commun 6(April):6936. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7936
Lenton TM (2013) Environmental tipping points. Annu Rev Env Resour 38(October):1–29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102511-084654
Lenton TM, Rockström J, Gaffney O, Rahmstorf S, Richardson K, Steffen W, Joachim Schellnhuber H (2019) Climate tipping points—too risky to bet against. Nature 575(7784):592–595. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03595-0
Leroy A, Morin M (2018) Innovation in the decision-making process of the RFMOs. Mar Policy 97(November):156–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.05.025
Lester SE, Halpern BS (2008) Biological responses in marine no-take reserves versus partially protected areas. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 367(September):49–56. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07599
Lester SE, Halpern BS, Grorud-Colvert K, Lubchenco J, Ruttenberg BI, Gaines SD, Airamé S, Warner RR (2009) Biological effects within no-take marine reserves: a global synthesis. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 384(May):33–46. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08029
Lidström S, Johnson AF (2019) Ecosystem-based fisheries management: a perspective on the critique and development of the concept. Fish Fish 21(1):216–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12418
Lindstrom E, Gunn J, Fischer A, McCurdy A, Glover LK (2012) A Framework for Ocean Observing. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Information Document 1284. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000211260
Lipcius RN, Crowder LB, Morgan LE (2005) Metapopulation structure and marine reserves. In: Norse EA, Crowder LB (eds) Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea’s biodiversity. Island, Washington, DC, pp 328–345
Liu L, Xu W, Yue Q, Teng X, Hu H (2018) Problems and countermeasures of coastline protection and utilization in China. Ocean Coast Manag 153(March):124–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.12.016
Loke LHL, Heery EC, Todd PA (2019) Shoreline defences. In: Sheppard C (ed) World seas: an environmental evaluation. Ecological issues and environmental impacts, vol 3, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 491–504
Longépé N, Hajduch G, Ardianto R, de Joux R, Nhunfat B, Marzuki MI, Fablet R et al (2018) Completing fishing monitoring with spaceborne vessel detection system (VDS) and automatic identification system (AIS) to assess illegal fishing in Indonesia. Mar Pollut Bull 131(B):33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.10.016
Lotze HK, Tittensor DP, Bryndum-Buchholz A, Eddy TD, Cheung WWL, Galbraith ED, Barange M et al (2019) Global ensemble projections reveal trophic amplification of ocean biomass declines with climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 116(26):12907–12912. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900194116
Lough JM, Anderson KD, Hughes TP (2018) Increasing thermal stress for tropical coral reefs: 1871–2017. Sci Rep 8(April):6079. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-24530-9
Lovelock CE, Cahoon DR, Friess DA, Guntenspergen GR, Krauss KW, Reef R, Rogers K et al (2015) The vulnerability of Indo-Pacific mangrove forests to sea-level rise. Nature 526(October):559–563. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15538
Lucifora LO, García VB, Worm B (2011) Global diversity hot spots and conservation priorities for sharks. PloS One 6(5):e19356. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019356
MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island, Washington, DC
Mace GM, Hails RS, Cryle P, Harlow J, Clarke SJ (2015) Towards a risk register for natural capital. J Appl Ecol 52(3):641–653. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12431
MacNeil MA, Graham NAJ, Cinner JE, Wilson SK, Williams ID, Maina J, Newman S et al (2015) Recovery potential of the world’s coral reef fishes. Nature 520(April):341–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14358
MacNeil MA, Mellin C, Matthews S, Wolff NH, McClanahan TR, Devlin M, Drovandi C, Mengersen K, Graham NAJ (2019) Water quality mediates resilience on the great barrier reef. Nat Ecol Evol 3(April):620–627. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0832-3
Margules CR, Pressey RL (2000) Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405:243–253. https://doi.org/10.1038/35012251
Martin SL, Ince L, Grooves T (2016) An ecosystem services perspective for the oceanic eastern tropical pacific: commercial fisheries, carbon storage, recreational fishing, and biodiversity. Front Mar Sci 3(April):50. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2016.00050
McCauley DJ, Pinsky ML, Palumbi SR, Estes JA, Joyce FH, Warner RR (2015) Marine defaunation: animal loss in the global ocean. Science 347(6219):1255641. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255641
McClanahan TR, Cinner JE, Maina J, Graham NAJ, Daw TM, Stead SM, Wamukota A et al (2008) Conservation action in a changing climate. Conserv Lett 1(2):53–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00008_1.x
McGowan JA, Cayan DR, Dorman LM (1998) Climate-ocean variability and ecosystem response in the Northeast Pacific. Science 281(5374):210–217. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.281.5374.210
McKinley DC, Miller-Rushing AJ, Ballard HL, Bonney R, Brown H, Cook-Patton SC, Evans DM et al (2017) Citizen science can improve conservation science, natural resource management, and environmental protection. Biol Conserv 208(April):15–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.05.015
Mcleod E, Chmura GL, Bouillon S, Salm R, Björk M, Duarte CM, Lovelock CE, Schlesinger WH, Silliman BR (2011) A blueprint for blue carbon: toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Front Ecol Environ 9(10):552–560. https://doi.org/10.1890/110004
McOwen C, Weatherdon LV, Bochove J, Sullivan E, Blyth S, Zockler C, Stanwell-Smith D et al (2017) A global map of saltmarshes. Biodivers Data J 5(March):e11764. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.5.e11764
Mellin C, MacNeil MA, Cheal AJ, Emslie MJ, Caley MJ (2016) Marine protected areas increase resilience among coral reef communities. Ecol Lett 19(6):629–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12598
Merrie A, Dunn DC, Metian M, Boustany AM, Takei Y, Elferink AO, Ota Y et al (2014) An ocean of surprises—trends in human use, unexpected dynamics and governance challenges in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Glob Environ Chang 27(July):19–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.012
Micheli F, Halpern BS, Botsford LW, Warner RR (2004) Trajectories and correlates of community change in no-take marine reserves. Ecol Appl 14(6):1709–1723. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-5260
Micheli F, Saenz-Arroyo A, Greenley A, Vazquez L, Espinoza Montes JA, Rossetto M, De Leo GA (2012) Evidence that marine reserves enhance resilience to climatic impacts. PloS One 7(7):e40832. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040832
Miller KA, Thompson KF, Johnston P, Santillo D (2018) An overview of seabed mining including the current state of development, environmental impacts, and knowledge gaps. Front Mar Sci 4(January):418. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00418
Miloslavich P, Bax NJ, Simmons SE, Klein E, Appeltans W, Aburto-Oropeza O, Shin YJ (2018a) Essential ocean variables for global sustained observations of biodiversity and ecosystem changes. Glob Chang Biol 24(6):2416–2433. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14108
Miloslavich P, Seeyave S, Muller-Karger F, Bax N, Ali E, Delgado C, Evers-King H et al (2018b) Challenges for global ocean observation: the need for increased human capacity. J Oper Oceanogr 12(S2):137–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2018.1526463
Molinos JG, Halpern BS, Schoeman DS, Brown CJ, Kiessling W, Moore PJ, Pandolfi JM et al (2016) Climate velocity and the future global redistribution of marine biodiversity. Nat Clim Change 6(January):83–87. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2769
Molnar JL, Gamboa RL, Revenga C, Spalding MD (2008) Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity. Front Ecol Environ 6(9):485–492
Mora C, Myers RA, Coll M, Libralato S, Pitcher TJ, Sumaila RU, Zeller D et al (2009) Management effectiveness of the world’s marine fisheries. PLoS Biol 7(6):e1000131. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000131
Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B (2011) How many species are there on earth and in the ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8):e1001127. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127
Mora C, Spirandelli D, Franklin EC, Lynham J, Kantar MB, Miles W, Smith CZ et al (2018) Broad threat to humanity from cumulative climate hazards intensified by greenhouse gas emissions. Nat Clim Change 8(December):1062–1071. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0315-6
Muller-Karger FE, Miloslavich P, Bax NJ, Simmons S, Costello MJ, Sousa Pinto I, Canonico G et al (2018) Advancing marine biological observations and data requirements of the complementary essential ocean variables (EOVs) and essential biodiversity variables (EBVs) frameworks. Front Mar Sci 5(June):211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00211
Mumby PJ, Harborne AR (2010) Marine reserves enhance the recovery of corals on Caribbean reefs. PloS One 5(1):e8657. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008657
Mumby PJ, Green EP, Edwards AJ, Clark CD (1999) The cost-effectiveness of remote sensing for tropical coastal resources assessment and management. J Environ Manage 55(3):157–166. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.1998.0255
Mumby PJ, Hedley JD, Chisholm JRM, Clark CD, Ripley H, Jaubert J (2004) The cover of living and dead corals from airborne remote sensing. Coral Reefs 23(July):171–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-004-0382-1
Mumby PJ, Harborne AR, Williams J, Kappel CV, Brumbaugh DR, Micheli F, Holmes KE et al (2007) Trophic cascade facilitates coral recruitment in a marine reserve. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(20):8362–8367. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702602104
Naeem S (2002) Ecosystem consequences of biodiversity loss: evolution of a paradigm. Ecology 83(6):1537–1552. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1537:ECOBLT]2.0.CO;2
Narayan S, Beck MW, Wilson P, Thomas CJ, Guerrero A, Shepard CC, Reguero BG et al (2017) The value of coastal wetlands for flood damage reduction in the Northeastern USA. Sci Rep 7(August):9463. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09269-z
Navarro LM, Fernández N, Guerra C, Guralnick R, Kissling WD, Londoño MC, Muller-Karger F et al (2017) Monitoring biodiversity change through effective global coordination. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 29(December):158–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.02.005
NEAFC/OSPAR (2014) Collective arrangement between competent International Organisations on Cooperation and Coordination regarding selected areas in areas beyond National Jurisdiction in the North-East Atlantic. NEAFC, London
NEAFC/OSPAR (North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission/Oslo Paris Commission) (2008) Memorandum of Understanding between the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) and the OSPAR Commission. NEAFC, London. https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/1357/mou_neafc_ospar.pdf
Nellemann C, Corcoran E, Duarte CM, Valdés L, De Young C, Fonseca L, Grimsditch G (2009) Blue carbon: the role of healthy oceans in binding carbon. United Nations Environmental Programme, GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway. https://cld.bz/bookdata/WK8FNPt/basic-html/index.html#1
Nijland W, Reshitnyk L, Rubidge E (2019) Satellite remote sensing of canopy-forming kelp on a complex coastline: a novel procedure using the landsat image archive. Rem Sens Environ 220(January):41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.10.032
Niner HJ, Ardron JA, Escobar EG, Gianni M, Jaeckel A, Jones DOB, Levin LA et al (2018) Deep-sea mining with no net loss of biodiversity—an impossible aim. Front Mar Sci 5(March):53. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00053
Norse EA (1993) Global marine biological diversity: a strategy for building conservation into decision making. Island, Washington, DC
Norse EA (2005) Ending the range wars on the last frontier: zoning the sea. In: Norse EA, Crowder LB (eds) Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea’s biodiversity. Island, Washington, DC, pp 422–443
Norse EA, Brooke S, Cheung WWL, Clark MR, Ekeland I, Froese R, Gjerde KM et al (2012) Sustainability of deep-sea fisheries. Mar Policy 36(2):307–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2011.06.008
O’Leary BC, Brown RL, Johnson DE, von Nordheim H, Ardron J, Packeiser T, Roberts CM (2012) The first network of marine protected areas (mpas) in the high seas: the process, the challenges and where next. Mar Policy 36(3):598–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2011.11.003
O’Leary BC, Winther-Janson M, Bainbridge JM, Aitken J, Hawkins JP, Roberts CM (2016) Effective coverage targets for ocean protection. Conserv Lett 9(6):398–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12247
O’Leary BC, Allen HL, Yates KL, Page RW, Tudhope AW, McClean C, Rogers AD, Hawkins JP, Roberts CM (2018) 30 x 30: a blue print for ocean protection—how we can protect 30% of our oceans by 2030. Greenpeace, London. https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4-new-zealand-stateless/2019/04/f136cbfb-5db0f88b-greenpeace-30x30-blueprint-report1.pdf
Oziel L, Neukermans G, Ardyna M, Lancelot C, Tison JL, Wassmann P, Sirven J, Ruiz-Pino D, Gascard JC (2017) Role for Atlantic inflows and sea ice loss on shifting phytoplankton blooms in the Barents sea. J Geophys Res Oceans 122(6):5121–5139. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012582
Paleczny M, Hammill E, Karpouzi V, Pauly D (2015) Population trend of the world’s monitored seabirds, 1950-2010. PloS One 10(6):e0129342. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129342
Palmer MW, Earls PG, Hoagland BW, White PS, Wohlgemuth T (2002) Quantitative tools for perfecting species lists. Environmetrics 13(2):121–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/env.516
Pandolfi JM, Bradbury RH, Sala E, Hughes TP, Bjorndal KA, Cooke RG, McArdle D et al (2003) Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science 301(5635):955–958. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1085706
Pappalardo P, Fernández M (2014) Mode of larval development as a key factor to explain contrasting effects of temperature on species richness across oceans. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 23(1):12–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12115
Parrish JK, Burgess H, Weltzin JF, Fortson L, Wiggins A, Simmons B (2018) Exposing the science in citizen science: fitness to purpose and intentional design. Integr Comparat Biol 58(1):150–160. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icy032
Pauly D, Zeller D (2016) Catch reconstructions reveal that global marine fisheries catches are higher than reported and declining. Nat Commun 7(January):10244. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10244
Pendleton LH, Thébaud O, Mongruel RC, Levrel H (2016) Has the value of global marine and coastal ecosystem services changed? Mar Policy 64(February):156–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.11.018
Pentz B, Klenk N, Ogle S, Fisher JAD (2018) Can regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) manage resources effectively during climate change? Mar Policy 92(June):13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.01.011
Pérez-Matus A, Carrasco S, Gelcich S, Fernandez M, Wieters E (2017) Exploring the effects of fishing pressure and upwelling intensity over subtidal kelp forest communities in Central Chile. Ecosphere 8(5):e01808. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1808
Peters H, O’Leary BC, Hawkins JP, Carpenter KE, Roberts CM (2013) Conus: first comprehensive conservation red list assessment of a marine gastropod mollusc genus. PloS One 8(12):e83353. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083353
Petersen S, Krätschell A, Augustin N, Jamieson J, Hein JR, Hannington MD (2016) News from the seabed—geological characteristics and resource potential of deep-sea mineral resources. Mar Policy 70(August):175–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.03.012
Petrossian GA, Deby RA, Clarke RV (2018) Illegal longline fishing and albatross extinction risk. Oryx 52(2):336–345. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605316000818
Pham CK, Ramirez-Llodra E, Alt CHS, Amaro T, Bergmann M, Canals M, Company JB et al (2014) Marine litter distribution and density in European seas, from the shelves to deep basins. PloS One 9(4):e95839. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095839
Phillips RA, Gales R, Baker GB, Double MC, Favero M, Quintana F, Tasker ML et al (2016) The conservation status and priorities for albatrosses and large petrels. Biol Conserv 201(September):169–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.06.017
Pikitch EK, Santora C, Babcock EA, Bakun A, Bonfil R, Conover DO, Dayton P et al (2004) Ecosystem-based fishery management. Science 305(5682):346–347. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1098222
Pikitch E, Boersma PD, Boyd IL, Conover DO, Cury P, Essington T, Heppell SS et al (2012) Little fish, big impact: managing a crucial link in ocean food webs. Lenfest Ocean Program, Washington, DC. https://www.oceanconservationscience.org/foragefish/files/Little%20Fish,%20Big%20Impact.pdf
Pine WE, Martell SJD, Walters CJ, Kitchell JF (2009) Counter intuitive responses of fish populations to management actions: some common causes and implications for predictions based on ecosystem modelling. Fisheries 34(4):165–180. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8446-34.4.165
Pinsky ML, Palumbi SR (2014) Meta-analysis reveals lower genetic diversity in overfished populations. Mol Ecol 23(1):29–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12509
Pitcher T, Kalikoski D, Pramod G, Short K (2009) Not honouring the code. Nature 457(February):658–659. https://doi.org/10.1038/457658a
Polacheck T (2012) Politics and independent scientific advice in RFMO processes: a case study of crossing boundaries. Mar Policy 36(1):132–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2011.04.006
Polidoro BA, Carpenter KE, Collins L, Duke NC, Ellison AM, Ellison JC, Farnsworth EJ et al (2010) The loss of species: mangrove extinction risk and geographic areas of global concern. PloS One 5(4):e10095. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010095
Pollnac RB, Crawford BR, Gorospe MLG (2001) Discovering factors that influence the success of community-based marine protected areas in the Visayas, Philippines. Ocean Coast Manag 44(11–12):683–710. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0964-5691(01)00075-8
Poloczanska ES, Brown CJ, Sydeman WJ, Kiessling W, Schoeman DS, Moore PJ, Brander K et al (2013) Global imprint of climate change on marine life. Nat Clim Change 3(October):919–925. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1958
Poloczanska ES, Burrows MT, Brown CJ, García Molinos J, Halpern BS, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Kappel CV et al (2016) Responses of marine organisms to climate change across oceans. Front Mar Sci 3(May):62. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2016.00062
Pompa S, Ehrlich P, Ceballos G (2011) Global distribution and conservation of marine mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(33):13600–13605
Pons M, Melnychuk MC, Hilborn R (2018) Management effectiveness of large pelagic fisheries in the high seas. Fish Fish 19(2):260–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12253
Puig P, Canals M, Company JB, Martín J, Amblas D, Lastras G, Palanques A, Calafat AM (2012) Ploughing the deep sea floor. Nature 489(September):286–289. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11410
Purcell SW, Polidoro BA, Hamel JF, Gamboa RU, Mercier A (2014) The cost of being valuable: predictors of extinction risk in marine invertebrates exploited as luxury seafood. Proc R Soc B 281(1781):20133296. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3296
Pusceddu A, Gambi C, Corinaldesi C, Scopa M, Danovaro R (2014) Relationships between meiofaunal biodiversity and prokaryotic heterotrophic production in different tropical habitats and oceanic regions. PloS One 9(3):e91056. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091056
Raudsepp-Hearne C, Peterson GD, Bennett EM (2010) Ecosystem service bundles for analyzing tradeoffs in diverse landscapes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(11):5242–5247. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907284107
Rex MA, Etter RJ (2010) Deep-sea biodiversity: pattern and scale. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Reygondeau G (2019) Current and future biogeography of exploited marine exploited groups under climate change. In: Cisneros-Montemayor AM, Cheung WWL, Ota Y (eds) Predicting future oceans: sustainability of ocean and human systems amidst global environmental change. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 87–101
Reygondeau G, Dunn D (2018) Data science and its relationship to big data and data-driven decision making. Big Data 1(1):51–59. https://doi.org/10.1089/big.2013.1508
Rice JC, Legacè È (2007) When control rules collide: a comparison of fisheries management reference points and IUCN criteria for assessing risk of extinction. ICES J Mar Sci 64(4):718–722. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsm011
Rice J, Ridgeway L (2010) Conservation of biodiversity and fisheries management. In: Grafton RQ, Hilborn R, Squires D, Tait M, Williams M (eds) Handbook of marine fisheries conservation and management. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 139–149
Richards DR, Friess DA (2016) Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, 2000–2012. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(2):344–349. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510272113
Ritter F, Panigada S (2019) Collisions of vessels with cetaceans—the underestimated threat. In: Sheppard C (ed) World seas: an environmental evaluation. Ecological issues and environmental impacts, vol 3, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London, pp 531–547
Rivadeneira MM, Fernandez M (2005) Shifts in southern endpoints of distribution in rocky intertidal species along the South-Eastern Pacific Coast. J Biogeogr 32(2):203–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2004.01133.x
RLS (Reef Life Survey) (2019) RLS data informing global biodiversity targets. https://reeflifesurvey.com/rls-data-informing-global-biodiversity-targets/. Accessed 25 Jun 2019
Roberts CM, Bohnsack JA, Gell F, Hawkins JP, Goodridge R (2001) Effects of marine reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science 294(5548):1920–1923. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.294.5548.1920
Roberts CM, O’Leary BC, McCauley DJ, Cury PM, Duarte CM, Lubchenco J, Pauly D et al (2017) Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114(24):6167–6175. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1701262114
Robinson JPW, Wilson SK, Robinson J, Gerry C, Lucas J, Assan C, Govinden R et al (2019) Productive instability of coral reef fisheries after climate-driven regime shifts. Nat Ecol Evol 3(February):183–190. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0715-z
Rockström J, Steffen W, Noone K, Persson Å, Chapin FS, Lambin EF, Lenton TM et al (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461(September):472–475. https://doi.org/10.1038/461472a
Rogers AD (2015) Environmental change in the deep ocean. Annu Rev Env Resour 40(November):1–38. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014-021415
Rogers AD (2018) The biology of seamounts: 25 years on. Adv Mar Biol 79:137–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.amb.2018.06.001
Rogers AD, Gianni M (2010) The implementation of UNGA resolutions 61/105 and 64/72 in the management of deep-sea fisheries on the high seas. Report prepared for the deep-sea conservation coalition. International Programme on State of the Ocean, London. http://www.savethehighseas.org/publicdocs/61105-Implemention-finalreport.pdf
Rogers AD, Brierley A, Croot P, Cunha MR, Danovaro R, Devey C, Hoel AH et al (2015) Delving deeper: critical challenges for 21st century deep-sea research. Position Paper 22. European Marine Board, Ostend, Belgium. https://www.marineboard.eu/sites/marineboard.eu/files/public/publication/EMB_PP22_Web_v4.pdf
Rossiter JS, Levine A (2014) What makes a ‘successful’ marine protected area? The unique context of Hawaii’s fish replenishment areas. Mar Policy 44(February):196–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.08.022
Rousseau Y, Watson RA, Blanchard JL, Fulton EA (2019) Evolution of global marine fishing fleets and the response of fished resources. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 116(25):12238–12243
Roux JP, van der Lingen C, Gibbons MJ, Moroff NE, Shannon LJ, Smith AD, Cury PM (2013) Jellification of marine ecosystems as a consequence of overfishing small pelagic fish: lessons from the Benguela. Bull Mar Sci 89(1):249–284. https://doi.org/10.5343/bms.2011.1145
Rowlands G, Brown J, Soule B, Boluda PT, Rogers AD (2019) Satellite surveillance of the Ascension Island exclusive economic zone and marine protected area. Mar Policy 101(March):39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.006
Roy K, Jablonski D, Valentine JW, Rosenberg G (1998) Marine latitudinal diversity gradients: tests of causal hypotheses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95(7):3699–3702. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.7.3699
Sadovy de Mitcheson Y (2016) Mainstreaming fish spawning aggregations into fishery management calls for truly precautionary approach. BioScience 66(4):295–306. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biw013
Sadovy de Mitcheson Y, Andersson AA, Hofford A, Law CSW, Hau LCY, Pauly D (2018) Out of control means off the menu: the case for ceasing consumption of luxury products from highly vulnerable species when international trade cannot be adequately controlled; shark fin as a case study. Mar Policy 98(December):115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.08.012
Sala E, Giakoumi S (2017) No-take marine reserves are the most effective protected areas in the ocean. ICES J Mar Sci 75(3):1166–1168. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsx059
Sala E, Lubchenco J, Grorud-Colvert K, Novelli C, Roberts C, Sumaila UR (2018a) Assessing real progress towards effective ocean protection. Mar Policy 91(May):11–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.02.004
Sauermann H, Franzoni C (2015) Crowd science user contribution patterns and their implications. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(3):679–684. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1408907112
Sciberras M, Jenkins SR, Kaiser MJ, Hawkins SJ, Pullin AS (2013) Evaluating the biological effectiveness of fully and partially protected marine areas. Environ Evid 2(February):4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-4
Selig ER, Turner WR, Troëng S, Wallace BP, Halpern BS, Kaschner K, Lascelles BG, Carpenter KE, Mittermeier RA (2014) Global priorities for marine biodiversity conservation. PloS One 9(1):e82898
Sherley RB, Ludynia K, Dyer BM, Lamont T, Makhado AB, Roux JP, Scales KL, Underhill LG, Votier SC (2017) Metapopulation tracking juvenile penguins reveals an ecosystem-wide ecological trap. Curr Biol 27(4):563–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.054
Shlesinger T, Loya Y (2019) Breakdown in spawning synchrony: a silent threat to coral persistence. Science 365(6457):1002–1007. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax0110
Short F, Carruthers T, Dennison W, Waycott M (2007) “Global seagrass distribution and diversity: a bioregional model,” in “The biology and ecology of seagrasses,” edited by B.W. Touchette, special issue. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 350(1–2):3–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2007.06.012
Sigwart JD, Chen C, Thomas EA, Allcock AL, Böhm M, Seddon M (2019) Red listing can protect deep-sea biodiversity. Nat Ecol Evol 3(August):1134. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0930-2
Skroblin A, Carboon T, Bidu G, Chapman N, Miller M, Taylor K, Taylor W, Game ET, Wintle BA (2019) Including indigenous knowledge in species distribution modelling for increased ecological insights. Conserv Biol 35:587. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13373
Smale DA, Wernberg T, Oliver ECJ, Thomsen MS, Harvey BP, Starub SC, Burrows MT et al (2019) Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. Nat Clim Change 9(April):306–312. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0412-1
Small N, Munday M, Durance I (2017) The challenge of valuing ecosystem services that have no material benefits. Glob Environ Chang 44(May):57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.03.005
Spalding MD, Ruffo S, Lacambra C, Meliane I, Hale LZ, Shepard CC, Beck WW (2014) The role of ecosystems in coastal protection: adapting to climate change and coastal hazards. Ocean Coast Manag 90(March):50–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.09.007
Stachowicz JJ, Bruno JF, Duffy JE (2007) Understanding the effects of marine biodiversity on communities and ecosystems. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 38(December):739–766. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095659
Standing A (2015) Corruption and state-corporate crime in fisheries. U4 Issue Paper 15. U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Chr. Michelsen Institute, Bergen, Norway. https://www.u4.no/publications/corruption-and-state-corporate-crime-in-fisheries.pdf
Stehli FG, McAlester AL, Helsey CE (1967) Taxonomic diversity of recent bivalves and some implications for geology. Geol Soc Am Bull 78(4):455–466. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1967)78[455:TDORBA]2.0.CO;2
Stehli FG, Douglas RG, Kafescioglu A (1972) Models for the evolution of Planktonic Foraminifera. In: Schopf TJM (ed) Models in paleobiology. Freeman, Cooper, San Francisco, pp 116–128
Stewart JS, Field JC, Markaida U, Gilly WF (2013) Behavioral ecology of Jumbo Squid (Dosidicus gigas) in relation to oxygen minimum zones. DeepSea Res II Top Stud Oceanogr 95(15):197–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2012.06.005
Stramma L, Prince ED, Schmidtko S, Luo J, Hoolihan JP, Visbeck M, Wallace DWR, Brandt P, Körtzinger A (2012) Expansion of oxygen minimum zones may reduce available habitat for tropical pelagic fishes. Nat Clim Change 2(January):33–37. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1304
Strong JA, Andonegi E, Bizsel KC, Danovaro R, Elliott M, Franco A, Garces E et al (2015) Marine biodiversity and ecosystem function relationships: the potential for practical monitoring applications. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 161(August):46–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2015.04.008
Stuart-Smith RD, Bates AE, Lefcheck JS, Duffy JE, Baker SC, Thomson RJ, Stuart-Smith JF et al (2013) Integrating abundance and functional traits reveals new global hot spots of fish diversity. Nature 501(September):539–542. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12529
Stuart-Smith RD, Edgar GJ, Barrett NS, Kininmonth SJ, Bates AE (2015) Thermal biases and vulnerability to warming in the world’s marine fauna. Nature 528(December):88–92. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16144
Stuart-Smith RD, Edgar GJ, Barrett NS, Bates AE, Baker SC, Bax NJ, Becerro MA et al (2017) Assessing national biodiversity trends for rocky and coral reefs through the integration of citizen science and scientific monitoring programs. BioScience 67(2):134–146. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biw180
Stuart-Smith RD, Brown CJ, Ceccarelli DM, Edgar GJ (2018) Ecosystem restructuring along the great barrier reef following mass coral bleaching. Nature 560(August):92–96. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0359-9
Suazo CG, Cabezas LA, Moreno CA, Arata JA, Luna-Jorquera G, Simeone A, Adasme L et al (2014) Seabird bycatch in chile: a synthesis of its impacts, and a review of strategies to contribute to the reduction of a global phenomenon. Pac Seabirds 41(1–2):1–12. http://www.pacificseabirdgroup.org/publications/PacificSeabirds/VOL_41_1-2.pdf
Suding KN, Hobbs RJ (2009) Threshold models in restoration and conservation: a developing framework. Trends Ecol Evol 24(5):271–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.11.012
Sullivan JM, Constant V, Lubchenco J (2019) Extinction threats to life in the ocean and opportunities for their amelioration. In: Dasgupta P, Raven P, McIvor A (eds) Biological extinction: new perspectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 113–137. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108668675
Sumaila UR, Dyck A, Cheung WWL (2013) Fisheries subsidies and potential catch loss in sids exclusive economic zones: food security implications. Environ Dev Econ 18(4):427–439. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X13000156
Sunagawa S, Coelho LP, Chaffron S, Kultima JR, Labadie K, Salazar G, Djahanschiri B et al (2015) Structure and function of the global ocean microbiome. Science 348(6237):1261359. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261359
Sweetman AK, Thurber AR, Smith CR, Levin LA, Mora C, Wei CL, Gooday AJ et al (2017) Major impacts of climate change on deep-sea benthic ecosystems. Elementa Sci Anthropocene 5:4. https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.203/
Tanhua T, McCurdy A, Fischer A, Appelatans W, Bax N, Currie K, DeYoung B et al (2019) What have we learned from the framework for ocean observing: evolution of the global ocean observing system. Front Mar Sci 6(August):471. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00471
Theobald EJ, Ettinger AK, Burgess HK, DeBey LB, Schmidt NR, Froehlich HE, Wagner C et al (2015) Global change and local solutions: tapping the unrealized potential of citizen science for biodiversity research. Biol Conserv 181(January):236–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.021
Thomas N, Lucas R, Bunting P, Hardy A, Rosenqvist A, Simard M (2017) Distribution and drivers of global mangrove forest change, 1996–2010. PloS One 12(6):e0179302. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179302
Thomson JA, Burkholder DA, Heithaus MR, Fourqurean JW, Fraser MW, Stratton J, Kendrick GA (2015) Extreme temperatures, foundation species, and abrupt ecosystem change: an example from an iconic seagrass ecosystem. Glob Chang Biol 21(4):1463. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.1269474
Thorson G (1952) Zur jetzigen lage der marinen bodentier-okolgie. Zool Anz S16:276–327
Thorson G (1957) Bottom communities (sublittoral or shallow shelf). In: Hedgepeth JW (ed) Treatise on marine ecology and paleoecology. Geological Society of America, Ithaca, NY, pp 461–534. https://doi.org/10.1130/MEM67V1-p535
Thrush SE, Dayton PK (2002) Disturbance to marine benthic habitats by trawling and dredging: implications for marine biodiversity. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 33(November):449–473. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150515
Tittensor DP, Baco-Taylor AR, Brewin P, Clark MR, Consalvey M, Hall-Spencer J, Rowden AA et al (2009) Predicting global habitat suitability for stony corals on seamounts. J Biogeogr 36(6). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.02062.x
Tittensor DP, Mora C, Jetz W, Lotze HK, Ricard D, Berghe EV, Worm B (2010) Global patterns and predictors of marine biodiversity across taxa. Nature 466(August):1098–1101. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09329
Tittensor DP, Beger M, Boerder K, Boyce DG, Cavanagh RD, Cosandey-Godin A, Crespo GO et al (2019) Integrating climate adaptation and biodiversity conservation in the global ocean. Sci Adv 5(11):eaay9969. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay9969
Traganos D, Aggarwal B, Poursanidis D, Topouzelis K, Chrysoulakis N, Reinartz P (2018) Towards global-scale seagrass mapping and monitoring using sentinel-2 on google earth engine: the case study of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. Remote Sens (Basel) 10(8):1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10081227
Travis J, Coleman FC, Auster PJ, Cury PM, Estes JA, Orensanz J, Peterson CH et al (2014) Integrating the invisible fabric of nature into fisheries management. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111(2):581–584. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1305853111
Trevathan-Tackett SM, Kelleway J, Macreadie PI, Beardall J, Ralph P, Bellgrove A (2015) Comparison of marine macrophytes for their contributions to blue carbon sequestration. Ecology 96(11):3043–3057. https://doi.org/10.1890/15-0149.1
UNEP-WCMC (United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre) and IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) (2020) Marine protected planet. UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, Cambridge. www.protectedplanet.net
UNEP-WCMC, Short FT (2018) “Global Distribution of Seagrasses.” Version 6.0. Sixth update to the data layer used in Green and Short (2003). UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. http://data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/7
UNEP-WCMC, WorldFish Centre, WRI, and TNC (2018) “Global Distribution of Warm-Water Coral Reefs, Compiled from Multiple Sources Including the Millennium Coral Reef Mapping Project.” Version 4.0. Includes contributions from IMaRS-USF and IRD (2005), IMaRS-USF (2005), and Spalding et al. (2001). UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. http://data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/1
Unsworth RKF, Nordlund LM, Cullen-Unsworth LC (2019) Seagrass meadows support global fisheries production. Conserv Lett 12(1):e12566. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12566
van Overzee HMJ, Rijnsdorp AD (2015) Effects of fishing during the spawning period: implications for sustainable management. Rev Fish Biol Fish 25(March):65–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-014-9370-x
Velarde E, Ezcurra E, Anderson DW (2015a) “Seabird Diet Predicts Following-Season Commercial Catch of Gulf of California Pacific Sardine and Northern Anchovy,” in “California Current System—Predators and the Preyscape,” edited by D.G. Ainley, P.B. Adams, and J. Jahncke, special issue. J Mar Syst 146(June):82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2014.08.014
Velarde E, Ezcurra E, Horn MH, Patton RT (2015b) Warm oceanographic anomalies and fishing pressure drive seabirds nesting north. Sci Adv 1(5):e1400210. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400210
Vergés A, Steinberg PD, Hay ME, Poore AG, Campbell AH, Ballesteros E, Heck KL Jr et al (2014) The tropicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: climate- mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 281(1789):20140846. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0846
Victorero L, Watling L, Deng Palomares ML, Nouvian C (2018) Out of sight, but within reach: a global history of bottom-trawled deep-sea fisheries from >400m depth. Front Mar Sci 5(April):98. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00098
Vihtakari M, Welcker J, Moe B, Chastel O, Tartu S, Hop H, Bech C, Descamps S, Gabrielsen GW (2018) Black-legged Kittiwakes as messengers of atlantification in the Arctic. Sci Rep 8(January):1178. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-19118-8
Wanless S, Harris MP, Redman P, Speakman JR (2005) Low energy values of fish as a probable cause of a major seabird breeding failure in the North Sea. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 294(June):1–8. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps294001
Ward P, Myers RA (2005) Shifts in open-ocean fish communities coinciding with the commencement of commercial fishing. Ecology 86(4):835–847. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0746
Washburn TW, Turner PJ, Durden JM, Jones DOB, Weaver P, Van Dover CL (2019) Ecological risk assessment for deep-sea mining. Ocean Coast Manag 176(June):24–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.04.014
Waycott M, Duarte CM, Carruthers TJB, Orth RJ, Dennison WC, Olyarnik S, Calladine A et al (2009) Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(30):12377–12381. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0905620106
Webb TJ, Mindel BL (2015) Global patterns of extinction risk in marine and non-marine systems. Curr Biol 25(4):506–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.023
Wernberg T, Filbee-Dexter K (2019) Missing the marine forest for the trees. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 612(March):209–215. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12867
Wernberg T, Bennett S, Babcock RC, De Bettignies T, Cure K, Depczynski M, Dufois F et al (2016) Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem. Science 353(6295):169–172. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad8745
Wicaksono P, Fauzan MA, Kumara ISW, Yogyantoro RN, Lazuardi W, Zhafarina Z (2019) Analysis of reflectance spectra of tropical seagrass species and their value for mapping using multispectral satellite images. Int J Rem Sens 40(23):8955–8978. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2019.1624866
Widjaja S, Long T, Wirajuda H, Van As H, Bergh PE, Brett A, Copeland D, Fernandez M, Gusman A, Juwana S, Ruchimat T, Trent S, Wilcox C (2020) Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and associated drivers. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. https://oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/iuu-fishing-and-associated-drivers
Wilkinson C, Salvat B, Eakin CM, Brathwaite A, Francini-Filho R, Webster N, Ferreira BP, Harris P (2016) Tropical and sub-tropical coral reefs. In: Iniss L, Simcock A (eds) The first global integrated marine assessment. World Ocean Assessment I, Division for Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea, New York, p 42
Williams GJ, Graham NAJ, Jouffray JB, Norström AV, Nyström M, Gove JM, Heenan A, Wedding LM (2019) Coral reef ecology in the anthropocene. Funct Ecol 33(6):1014–1022. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13290
Williamson M (1997) Marine biodiversity in its global context. In: Ormond RFG, Gage JD, Angel MV (eds) Marine biodiversity: patterns and processes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–17
Wilson SK, Graham NAJ, Pratchett MS, Jones GP, Polunin NVC (2006) Multiple disturbances and the global degradation of coral reefs: are reef fishes at risk or resilient? Glob Chang Biol 12(11):2220–2234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01252.x
Winnard S, Hochberg T, Miller N, Kroodsma D, Small C, Augustyn P (2018) A new method using AIS data to obtain independent compliance data to determine mitigation use at sea. In: Paper prepared for the Thirteenth Meeting of the CCSBT Compliance Committee, October 11–13, Noumea, New Caledonia. https://www.ccsbt.org/en/system/files/CC13_Info03_BLI_AIS_MitigationUse_Rev1.pdf
WMO (World Meteorological Organization) (2016) The global observing system for climate: implementation needs. WMO, Geneva. https://library.wmo.int/opac/doc_num.php?explnum_id=3417
Woodall LC, Robinson LF, Rogers AD, Narayanaswamy BE, Paterson GLJ (2015) Deep-sea litter: a comparison of seamounts, banks and a ridge in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans reveals both environmental and anthropogenic factors impact accumulation and composition. Front Mar Sci 2(February):3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00003
Woolley SNC, Tittensor DP, Dunstan PK, Guillera-Arroita G, Lahoz-Monfort JJ, Wintle BA, Worm B, O’Hara TD (2016) Deep-sea diversity patterns are shaped by energy availability. Nature 533(7603):393–396. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17937
World Bank (2017) The Sunken Billions revisited: progress and challenges in global marine fisheries. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/24056
Worm B, Myers RA (2003) Meta-analysis of Cod–Shrimp interactions reveals top-down control in oceanic food webs. Ecology 84(1):162–173. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0162:MAOCSI]2.0.CO;2
Worm B, Tittensor DP (2011) Range contraction in large pelagic predators. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(29):11942–11947. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1102353108
Worm B, Tittensor DP (2018) A theory of global biodiversity. In: Monographs in Population Biology 60. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Worm B, Barbier EB, Beaumont N, Duffy E, Folke C, Halpern BS, Jackson JBC et al (2006) Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314(5800):787–790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294
WoRMS (World Register of Marine Species) (n.d.) Statistics. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=stats. Accessed 22 Mar 2020
Wright G, Ardron J, Gjerde K, Currie D, Rochette J (2015) Advancing marine biodiversity protection through regional fisheries management: a review of bottom fisheries closures in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Mar Policy 61(November):134–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.06.030
WWF (World Wildlife Fund) (2015) Reviving the ocean economy: the case for action—2015. WWF International, Gland. https://c402277.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/publications/790/files/original/Reviving_Ocean_Economy_REPORT_low_res.pdf?1429717323
Ye Y, Gutierrez NL (2017) Ending fishery overexploitation by expanding from local successes to globalized solutions. Nat Ecol Evol 1(June):0179. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0179
Yesson C, Clark MR, Taylor M, Rogers AD (2011) The global distribution of seamounts based on 30-second bathymetry data. Deep-Sea Res I Oceanogr Res Pap 58(4):442–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2011.02.004
Zaneveld JR, Burkepile DE, Shantz AA, Pritchard CE, McMinds R, Payet JP, Welsh R et al (2016) Overfishing and nutrient pollution interact with temperature to disrupt coral reefs down to microbial scales. Nat Commun 7(June):11833. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11833
Zhang H, Wu F (2017) China’s marine fishery and global ocean governance. Global Pol 8(2):216–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12419
Zoffoli ML, Frouin R, Kampel M (2014) Water column correction for coral reef studies by remote sensing. Sensors 14(9):16881–16931. https://doi.org/10.3390/s140916881
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rogers, A.D. et al. (2023). Critical Habitats and Biodiversity: Inventory, Thresholds and Governance. In: Lubchenco, J., Haugan, P.M. (eds) The Blue Compendium. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16277-0_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16277-0_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-16276-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-16277-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)