Keywords

1 Introduction

The paper begins with a general overview of the literature of educational leadership and management issues in conflict areas and war affected countries, with a focus on the latest theories of leadership and management in the field of education. Then, the study defines and provides an overview of the best International Assessment Measures to be used in the field as a solid tool for learning and evaluation in those countries. Finally, the study gives more focus on the ideal mode of assessment to be adopted and tailored in a post-conflict Syria, as a means for the reformation of the hugely broken Syrian educational system, with PIRLS as an option.

1.1 Rationale of the Study

This paper may well fit as a part of the broader studies focusing on the subject of education reconstruction in post-conflict communities. Several studies have already been conducted to review the feasibility of education system reformation in post-conflict nations. However, very little studies have dealt with issues of assessment measures and systems followed in emergency situations to reform and achieve a better educational quality.

1.2 Questions of the Study

The general question of this paper will be “Which assessment measure of the three International Assessment Measures would be the most innovative and effective tool in the reformation of the educational system in conflict affected countries? However, the specific questions are “Can PIRLS be utilized in post-conflict Syrian elementary schools as a tool of educational reformation?” and “How can PIRLS be tailored to cope with the special emergency requirements of post-conflict countries?”.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Conceptual Analysis

An Overview of International Assessment Measures (IAMs):

Academic research would inform that the teachers are subject to the influences of external assessment practices in their way of teaching (Harlen 2004). However, teachers often use assessments as tools of teaching for their own sake, even if they are not completely tailored to the specific needs or requirements of their teaching process (James 2006). Currently, the most prominent external assessment measures are the international assessment measures of TIMSS, PISA, and PIRLS. The PIRLS mode of assessment, standing for “Progress in International Reading Literacy Study”, has been managed by Boston College in collaboration with the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) every 5 years since 2001. PIRLS targets a sample of fourth grade students. In 2011, 66 countries participated in PIRLS, and in 2016 and 2021 the number was 61 countries.

PIRLS is offered to participating countries every five years to assess students’ reading achievement in their fourth year at school. PIRLS 2021 is the fifth and latest assessment in the current trend series, following PIRLS 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016. The latest PIRLS 2016 and 2021 developed solid tools and instruments to reflect the new changes or international reading assessment trends. Through the recent years, some developing countries have also started to benchmark their performance in the use and application of IAMs against the performance scores of their ‘developed’ neighbors (Bernbaum and Moore 2016, p. 7).

Impact of Conflict and War on Education & IAMs Usage

For some countries, the outlining lineament in recent years has been one of continuing conflicts and political and social chaos. Additionally, inadequate teachers training, insufficient teaching quality, and the absence of official monitoring systems have all led to the absence of robust assessment and evaluation measures in those educational and schooling systems (Sommers 2002; UNESCO 2000: 15; Bernbaum and Moore 2016). Therefore, there has been an increasing demand for the implementation of solid and subtle assessment measures.

In Syria, given the fact the “[t]he destruction and devastation to human life, property, and infrastructure will take decades to repair” (Jones et al. 2017, p.8), it seems that the whole situation is more complicated. “The challenges facing Syria are immense, including… ineffective governance that particularly affected young Syrians through poor education and joblessness …” (Jones et al. 2017, p. 8). In its Education Report on Syria published in March 2017, the International Rescue Committee (IRC) “has collected data that provide critical insight into reading and math levels of internally displaced and host community children.” (IRC Report, 2017, p. 1).

International Assessment Measures usage in Post-Conflict Syria

None of the PIRLS resources and websites shows evidence of Syria taking part in any of the PIRLS assessments. Reports of TIMSS and PIRLS assessments published by IEA show Syria participating only in the TIMSS assessments for math skills and achievements. (Building Knowledge in the UAE Report, p. 13).

“For the data discussed in [this] report, IRC used the Annual State of Education Report (ASER) reading and math tools” (IRC 2017, p 4) as an instrument to test reading and math achievements of Syrian students in certain selected areas. ASER assessment was chosen as the measure in selected areas in Syria because the tools are user-friendly and give the chance to build a solid and factual visualization of early grades’ reading and math skills. The 2017 ASER Reading Results by IRC in Syria show that 96% of male and female students are unable to read at Grade 2. However, reading illiteracy results change as we advance in the school level, demonstrating less illiteracy rates among students of Grade 8 of 35% (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
7 sets of 3 bars plot the percent of male, female, and the total students from grades 2 to 8 unable to read by second grade. Grade 2 tops with 96% total, followed by grade 3. Males have a declining trend till grade 6 but rise in 7 and 8. Females have a declining trend in general, except for a slight rise in grade 6.

Graph taken from the IRC Report, 2017

Full size image

Like the ASER initiative, PIRLS can be utilized as a mode of assessment in post-conflict Syria. In this sense, reports show that the students or pupils in Syrian conflict areas do not need the learning process to focus on reading literacy. In this context, the researcher believes that investigating PIRLS as the ideal mode of assessment can give fruitful results to the quality of their educational system.

2.2 Theoretical Underpinning

The subject of international assessment application and implementation in post-conflict context raises some questions about the theories in which assessment, on the one hand, and learning and teaching quality, on the other, are expressed (James 2006). This paper of assessment measures would fall within the general theories of behaviourism, constructivism, and socio-culturalism. The reason for this theoretical underpinning classification is the socio-cultural and behavioural relationship between assessment practices and the ways in which students are trained to achieve learning outcomes. It is assumed in academic research that there should be some alignment between classroom assessment and the understanding of social and behavioural contexts of learning (Shi et al. 2016).

2.3 Review of the Relevant Literature

There is a myriad of insights that can be induced from existing literature on the general subject of education in post-conflict societies. There is also a big repository of other scholarly journals, reports and articles that show how post-conflict educational systems have been effectively approached and dealt with. Studies such as Davies (2004a & b), Gallagher (2004), the World Bank study (2005), Hawrylenko (2010), Laura (2010), and Barakat et al. (2013), and Evans and Popova (2015) are just few examples of studies that investigated the important role education can play in post-conflict countries. Almost all such books and studies agreed that “while education systems have the potential to act as a powerful force for peace, reconciliation and conflict prevention by promoting mutual respect, tolerance and critical thinking, they often fuel violence by providing insufficient or unequal access and/or the wrong type of education” (Barakat et al. 2013, p. 125).

Clarke and O’Donoghue (2013) argue that there are important guidelines of the developments of students’ achievements that can be attained in schools by enhancing the curriculums, empowering teachers’ roles and capacity and enhance school leadership quality. In their book, Kheang et al. (2018) provided for a comprehensive overview of the challenges that face leaders in the education field in developing countries and in post-conflict countries.

It is also important to examine the work of Leithwood and Massey (2010). They believe that “effective leadership” is a major factor for the success of any effort attempting reform. Therefore, there is a great need for promoting assessment skills to improve the academic achievement of students. However, according to Clarke and O’Donoghue (2013), there is very little empirical research that can be relied on in the researcher’s attempt to give interpretation to school leadership and assessment management context in post-conflict settings at an international level.

3 Research Methodology and Approach

3.1 Research Methodology

The study will be conducted through both comparative qualitative and comparative quantitative methods. However, the researcher utilized more qualitative tools for the findings and results of the study, basing the study on emerging and current studies and research as well as conducting a case study. The case study was done through several semi-structured in-depth interviews conducted though the telephone with two school principals and two teachers from four Syrian elementary schools, based in areas outside the control of the central government of Syria.

The case study attempted to investigate the awareness and application of PIRLS as a tool of assessment of reading literacy for elementary level students, hoping to answer the major question of this research study: Can PIRLS be tailored and adapted in Syrian elementary schools and utilized as a tool of educational reformation of a broken educational system in the aftermath of conflict or war in Syria? The question of the research was answered based on the statistics and feedback provided by the interviewees. The example reading tests were then provided to the interviewees to submit to their chosen sample of students at 4th grade levels.

3.2 Research Approach

The researcher placed his study within the perspective of both positivist and interpretivist schools since the study would entail both fixed and flexible underpinnings in reaching the results. First the study was based on the findings and statistics reached to date by prominent authors in the field and internally accredited organizations and establishments, such as IEA and OECD. The researcher based the study on some objectivist findings as well as some subjectivist approach in handling what had already been achieved in the filed so far and what is needed to be done yet.

4 Data Collection and Analysis

Four Syrian elementary schools were chosen for the case study of this paper, located in areas outside the control of the government. Due to the political and social constraints, the interviews were conducted through phone and video calls with two elementary school principals as well as English and Arabic teachers from each school, based in areas that did not possess formal assessment management tools. First, the interviews were conducted to focus on questions related to the existing assessment methods followed by each school and how well they were reflected in the teaching and learning process of fourth grade students and above. Then the questions touched on principals’ and teachers’ awareness of international assessment measures as well as their application and usage. Finally, the principals and teachers were asked to help in conducting simulated PIRLS assessments to be based on some of the sample reading tests taken from TIMSS and PIRLS resources and some other public resources and websites.

The PIRLS assessment samples that were handed over to fourth grade students in the selected Syrian schools were tailored and adapted to suit the available schooling and educational elements. For the sake of this paper, selected passages from Syrian fourth grade English and Arabic coursebooks were chosen to tailor the assessments. The questions were modeled to suit the selected passages within the Syrian context. All the questions were of the interpretive type, and they were categorized into two sections, each in accordance with the type of selected reading: Reading for Literary Experience and Reading to Acquire and Use and Acquire Information.

4.1 Questions Asked in the Interviews

The questions directed to the interviewee participants are grouped into the following categories:

  • Group 1: About Being a Leader/Teacher in Post-Conflict School Environment

    Four questions were asked, focusing on the schooling environment of interviewees and how teachers’ teaching experience was impacted by the Syrian conflict.

  • Group 2: About Application of Assessment to Assess Students’ Achievements

    Four questions were asked on the kind of assessment measures used by teachers and in which way these measures, if they exist, are controlled by the local authorities.

  • Group 3: About Reading Teaching and Assessment for a 4th Grade Class.

    Nine questions were asked to the kind of reading materials, textbooks and assessments used for 4th grade students, in both Arabic and English langue contexts.

  • Group 4: About Awareness of PIRLS and How Far it can be Implemented

    Eight questions were asked about interviewees’ awareness and knowledge of the PIRLS assessment and if any similar assessments are or have been used. The questions also aimed to obtain information on the kind of support required to enact PIRLS assessment in conflict impacted educational settings.

4.2 Tools for Data Collection and Analysis

Because PIRLS assesses the two major purposes that fourth grade students usually qualify for, Reading for Literary Experience and Reading to Acquire and Use Information, it is important to focus on these two purposes while providing PIRLS exam material as a tool for getting results for this study. The four processes of comprehension to be assessed by PIRLS are widely used by fourth grade student readers, and they “focus on and retrieve explicitly stated information […] interpret and integrate ideas and information, and evaluate and critique content and textual elements”. (PIRLS 2016 Assessment Framework, 2nd Edition). For that purpose, the sample PIRLS passages, questions and scoring guides were an adaptation of the passages posted on TIMSS & PIRLS website: https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/downloads/P16_FW_Appendix_B.pdf.

The reading passages were replaced with reading texts from Syrian fourth grade textbooks, both English and Arabic. The updated and tailored package was sent to the interviewees to carry out the tests on sample students form their respective schools. The scoring guides for the structured assessment questions were sent and explained to the interviewees to make sure they are familiar with the scoring and marking instruments before they submitted the reading passages and questions to their students. After receipt of students’ answers and interviewees’ scoring cards, the researcher conducted an analysis of the results and examined areas of weaknesses and strengths.

5 Results and Findings and Piloting of the Study

5.1 Results and Findings

The findings show that the best assessment measure that can be adopted in post-conflict and war affected countries and zones is the PIRLS. This mode of assessment is the best choice for education reformation in conflict affected countries. Practices and implementation of PIRLS help build a quality teaching leadership in areas affected by conflict. These indirect effects of the application of enhanced and sustained measures of assessment on high-quality leadership appear to be especially important in schools operating in exceptional and emergency contexts.

However, the researcher found that the reformation of the educational system quality in conflict affected countries such as Syria requires the right programs to be funded and adopted to seek actual education improvements and benefits. It is highly recommended that the PIRLS assessment measure be tailored, first to adapt to the Syrian current emergency and post-conflict factors and second to ensure best quality results for the whole educational process. After the change, an updated and more in-depth version of PIRLS can be adopted and invested on in building the reserve capacity for a smarter and more focused Syrian generation.

An important message from the case study samples was that reform through the application of PIRLS and maybe other international assessment measures in conflict affected areas is feasible. The implementation of tailored PIRLS assessment tools can help create a difference in children’s learning and enhances the quality of teaching and learning at large. However, the initiatives that attempt to achieve quality learning in such contexts need to be done on a long-term basis and appropriately investigated. In this sense, a wider scope of academic research needs to be conducted and pursued.

5.2 Discussions of Results and Piloting of the Study

There are at least six implications from both the literature review and the case study findings that can be utilized in the Syrian context. They can be formulated to help support the major questions of a further study at a larger scale within the Syrian and other similar contexts. First, there is an indispensable need for the enhancement of Syrian elementary students’ engagement in all kinds of assessment initiatives, most importantly international assessment measures. Second, it has been found that there is no effective and capable substitute for the formal and official educational system in the country. Third, through the application of PIRLS, there is a lot to be gained from the innovations of advanced countries and some developed countries. Fourth, there is no magical solution when it comes to the adoption and implementation of a comprehensive assessment approach in post-conflict countries. Fifth, any attempt at educational reform to improve student learning is of marginal use unless there are systems in place to hold the people who are performing the reform accountable. Finally, it has been found that the implementation of solid assessment and learning tools in post-conflict countries requires investing on capabilities and technology skills and advanced educational tools. As a result, a further study will focus more on the qualifications and skills that are required for the improvement of learning quality and empowering teachers as leaders in communities affected by war and conflict.