Keywords

1 Introduction

Peatlands have gained prominence in the world literature, due to the importance of the ecosystem services they provide to society [4]. Along with harboring vast biological diversity, these ecosystems have played a key role in water, soil, and climate regulation over thousands of years [1]. Peatlands are wetlands vertically stratified in two layers, called the acrotelm and catotelm. The acrotelm is the layer from the surface to the water table (located at 30–50 cm, it is aerobic and hosts vegetation that fixes carbon through photosynthesis (primary productivity and maintains active recycling of organic matter below the surface. The catotelm is located from the water table to the basal mineral substrate (water saturation zone, which can be several meters deep; it is essentially anaerobic, with a large number of microorganisms capable of decomposing organic matter slowly, mainly by fermentation, which generates a net accumulation of organic matter and carbon in the form of peat [33] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
An illustration of the underground layers and carbon cycling in an ombrotrophic peatland. Starting from the top, the layers are pon pon moss, blond peat, and black peat. Methane produced by black peat is consumed and released partially. Methane affects the water level in blond peat.

Main ecosystem services and carbon cycling in an ombrotrophic peatland of Sphagnum magellanicum on Navarino Island, Magallanes Region. The different metabolic steps in the carbon cycle and their location in the vertical profile are represented. The strata of pompom moss, blond and black peat were obtained at different depths: black peat: 5–5.5 m, blond peat: 2–2.5 m, pompom: 0–0.5 m. On the right side of the figure, the most relevant ecosystem goods and services are shown in colors in the acrotelm and catotelm of the peatland: red: Cultural; blue: Regulating; gray: Sustaining; green: Provisioning (Photos R. Mackenzie)

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Peatlands occupy approximately 3% of the world land area and contain 21% of soil organic carbon [60]. With an approximate storage of 644 Gt C (Gt C = 1 × 109 ton of carbon), the carbon pool in peatlands is equivalent to ca. 1.7 times the carbon stored in all forests on earth [35, 52]. The peatlands of Chilean (western) Patagonia account for ca. 1.1% (ca. 45,000 km2) of the area of all peatlands worldwide (ca. 3.9 million km2) [51, 65]. Although Patagonian peatlands represent a small proportion of the planet’s peatlands, they are the largest terrestrial carbon pool in the temperate zones of the Southern Hemisphere (>30°S), with a small representation in Australia, New Zealand, some South Atlantic islands, and the Antarctic Peninsula [37]. Peatlands in Chilean Patagonia are mostly located far from urban centers, so some of them are in a quasi-pristine state [34]. However, within peatlands in the southernmost part of Patagonia (ca. 53°S) there are records of atmospheric deposition of chemical elements and pollution of anthropogenic origin (e.g. Cu, Sb, S and Hg), originating in other latitudes, whose concentrations in the substrate have fluctuated over the last few hundred years [3, 64].

2 Scope and Objectives

This chapter presents an overview of current knowledge on the peatland ecosystems of Chilean Patagonia. It highlights their wide distribution and geographic extension, their importance as a waterlogged habitat with a remarkable biodiversity of vascular plants, bryophytes, vertebrates, invertebrates, and microorganisms, as well as their value in the provision of ecosystem services associated with the well-being of society, and as regulators of water, soil, and climate cycles. The great longevity and importance of peatlands as millenary climatic-environmental records and their role as carbon sinks are also highlighted. The direct and indirect anthropogenic threats and pressures are discussed and the legal norms and other actions for the protection and regulation of the harvesting of peat moss, Sphagnum magellanicum, peat extraction, and the integral conservation of the components of peatland ecosystems are analyzed.

3 Peatlands of Chilean Patagonia

3.1 Distribution of Peatlands in Chilean Patagonia

The spatial distribution of peatland communities in the landscape of southern and Patagonian Chile spans about 14° latitude, from the Los Ríos Region (ca. 41°S) to Cape Horn (ca. 56°S) [38, 40] (Fig. 2). Their distribution is determined by a negative precipitation gradient from west to east, caused by the contact of westerly winds with the Andes Range, establishing the greatest extension of peatland communities in Chilean Patagonia and in the Tierra del Fuego archipelago [34]. Patagonian peatlands contrast with their counterparts in the Northern Hemisphere, because they are located in bioclimatic zones with a greater range of precipitation (600–4000 mm per year) and with more oceanic influence [37].

Fig. 2
A map of Patagonia highlights the distribution of peatlands and glaciers with a longitudinal stretch extending from the North to the South.

Distribution of Chilean peatlands between ca. 41 and 56°S. Included are those areas where peatlands are part of the basal stratum of endemic conifer forests, as well as evergreen forests throughout Chilean Patagonia and the southernmost deciduous forests [38, 40]

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The most characteristic communities in the diverse mosaic of Patagonian peatland systems are: (i) graminiform peatlands, dominated mainly by species of cyperaceae of the genus Schoenus: S. antarcticus and S. andinus. sedges such as Marsippospermum grandiflorum, various poaceae, and other species such as Carpha alpina in conditions where precipitation is <1000 mm per year; (ii) natural sphagnum peatlands, dominated exclusively by the moss Sphagnum magellanicum, under a precipitation regime between 600 and 1500 mm per year; (iii) pulvinate peatlands, dominated by cushion-shaped vascular plant species such as Donatia fascicularis, Astelia pumila and Drosera uniflora that form compact folds and develop under hyper-oceanic conditions with rainfall that can exceed 4000 mm per year and is homogeneously distributed throughout the year; (iv) ecotonal peatlands, where sphagnum and pulvinate peatland communities intermingle [53]. These peatland communities can also form part of the basal stratum of forests of endemic conifers such as the Guaitecas cypress (Pilgerodendron uviferum) (Fig. 3), evergreen forests throughout Chilean Patagonia, and deciduous forests in the southern Patagonian region. There are anthropogenic peat bogs (in Spanish pomponales), mainly in areas of Llanquihue and Chiloé (ca. 42°S., mostly landscapes of anthropogenic origin) dominated by the moss Sphagnum magellanicum, showing different floristic composition, that accumulate less quantities of peat than natural Sphagnum peatlands [11].

Fig. 3
A photo of a landscape features coniferous trees and distant mountains adorned with snow caps.

Sphagnum peat bog community with Guaitecas cypress (Pilgerondendron uviferum) in Tortel commune, Aysén Region (Photo R. Mackenzie)

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3.2 Importance of Biological Diversity in Chilean Patagonian Peatlands

The peatlands of Chilean Patagonia are seasonally flooded ecosystems that harbor a wide biodiversity of organisms, some of which are highly specialized and capable of living in conditions that are adverse to other species, such as acidic, flooded soils and low nutrient availability [33]. Peatlands are the habitat of a rich flora of cryptogams, including mosses and plant species [14]. Brown mosses, mainly species of the genus Polytrichum, form extensive mats and column-like structures associated with peatlands, and have a relevant role in the regeneration of Sphagnum magellanicum in peatlands that have been intervened or exploited [20]. S. magellanicum peatlands are also the habitat of endemic mosses such as Tayloria dubyi, a moss that grows exclusively on Caiquén or southern goose (Chloephaga picta) feces and uses volatile compounds to attract coprophilic insects that disperse their spores. T. dubyi belongs to the only family of cryptogams in the Southern Hemisphere that exhibits entomophily and is restricted to S. magellanicum formations in the Subantarctic forest of Magallanes [32].

Graminiform and pulvinate peatlands have higher species richness and vascular plant diversity (angiosperms and ferns) than Sphagnum magellanicum peatlands, with more than 70% of the species being endemic to southern South America. Vascular plants with highly specialized strategies able to live in soils with low nutrient availability (e.g. nitrogen) include the carnivorous plants Pinguicula antarctica and D. uniflora [14], which are associated with the endemic conifer Lepidothamnus fonkii (dwarf cypress) [5], considered to be the southernmost in the world together with P. uviferum [63].

The diverse microtopography and internal hydrology of a peatland generates a number of microhabitats (e.g. phorophytes, pools, soil). Environmental micro-gradients are formed in these that can even be occupied by other Sphagnum species, which are arranged in a microtopographic moisture gradient, with S. falcatulum being the most hygrophilic species, usually growing underwater where it takes on a feathery appearance [39]. These microhabitats also possess functions, processes and specific biodiversity. For example, in areas of an ecotonal peatland community dominated by S. magellanicum (Sphagnum–pulvinates), the effect of carbon sequestration is greater than in areas dominated by angiosperms [43]. Therefore, changes in the pattern and abundance of plant species inhabiting peatlands, either as a result of climate change or associated with direct anthropogenic factors, would alter microhabitats, food webs, and complex biogeochemical processes, including those that control peat accumulation rates, including carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions. In other words, a peatland can change from a carbon sink to a net emitter of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, depending on its conservation status.

As in other ecosystems, the entomofauna of peatland communities plays a key role in the food chain and in the transfer of energy to higher trophic links, supporting vertebrate populations that include amphibians and insectivorous birds [31]. Although freshwater insects have been considered bioindicators of the ecological quality of freshwater ecosystems [8], they are not considered as part of the composition, structure and functioning of peatlands, nor are they used as an alternative to evaluate the environmental quality of these ecosystems when planning management and conservation strategies.

Information on the fauna associated with the peatlands of Chilean Patagonia is still scarce and fragmented. Although to date no birds have been described as exclusive to peatland communities, certain species are well adapted to terrestrial ecosystems of high humidity and low temperatures such as some Charadriformes, in particular species of Gallinago [57]. These habitats are crucial for certain bird communities for feeding, reproduction, and shelter [27]. Amphibians are highly dependent on humid environments and the presence of water for reproduction and larval stages. There are amphibian species exclusive to peatland environments such as Nannophryne variegata, Chaltenobatrachus aff grandisonae, and Batrachyla antartandica [49]. Other vertebrates such as mammals (e.g. huemul deer, foxes, and rodents) are relatively scarce, even more so in Chilean Patagonia due to its insular characteristics. The rodents Oligoryzomys longicaudatus, Abrothrix olivaceus, and A. lanosus visit peatlands; the first of these most often, due to its preference for humid environments [22]. Prokaryotes and eukaryote microorganisms play a preponderant role in the biogeochemical cycles of peatlands [18]. However, there is a profound lack of knowledge of their functions and structure in the peatlands of southern South America. These microbiota form consortia in the hyalocysts of S. magellanicum and develop as symbionts in the acrotelm, also known as the Sphagnum microbiome [6, 18]. The methanotrophic and diazotrophic symbionts of S. magellanicum are able to fix between 5 and 20% of CO2 from methane and up to 35% of cellular nitrogen, respectively; microbial consortia located in the catotelm perform the latter, step in peat decomposition by methanogenesis, using CO2 as an electron acceptor [18]. The balance between the microbial processes of methane production and consumption in the catotelm and acrotelm, respectively, attenuate the contribution of this greenhouse gas naturally made by peatlands towards the atmosphere [36].

The communities of amoeboid protists with a shell (test) have hardly been studied in Chilean Patagonia and can represent almost 50% of the total biomass of microorganisms in a peatland. Chilean Patagonian peatlands harbor a high specific diversity and a significant proportion of these species, which are endemic to southern South America [16].

In the implementation of plans for the restoration of peatland ecosystems, it is crucial to recover the diversity of microhabitats, as well as the processes that occur in them in order to maintain the trophic webs and biogeochemical processes that promote the accumulation of carbon prior to the exploitation of peatlands, among other reasons.

3.3 Ecosystem Services of Peatlands

Ecosystem goods and services correspond to the benefits, products, and services that human societies obtain from natural ecosystems and their biological diversity. Most of the ecosystem services that peatlands provide to society do not have a direct economic value in the classical sense, therefore, they usually do not form part of a country’s indicators of economic activity, are thus undervalued, and are suffering a worrying rate of degradation. This deficiency in the economic system requires the attention of society as a whole, since the sustainable development of a country and the well-being of its inhabitants depend directly on the services and functions of ecosystems and their biological diversity [55].

Two photos feature large quantities of decomposed organic material suspended on the water's surface.

Therefore, the ecosystem services of environments are a powerful tool for the design of environmental policies and for decision-making aimed at sharing the benefits of natural areas throughout society. Ecosystem services can be classified according to the main benefits that the ecosystem provides, which in sphagnum peatland ecosystems are: (i) provisioning: goods and products obtained from ecosystems (e.g. products with economic value such as Sphagnum fibers and peat substrate); (ii) regulation: key ecosystem functions that help to reduce the impact of certain local and global events (e.g. regulation of the water cycle and storage of water and nutrients in the ecosystem); (iii) cultural: these are the intangible benefits of ecosystems (e.g. spiritual, scientific, educational, and artistic value); (iv) support/habitat: is the capacity to host biodiversity, natural processes and ecosystem biogeochemical fluxes (e.g. climate change mitigation by acting as carbon sinks) [4] (Fig. 1).

3.4 Value of Peatlands for Paleoenvironment and Climate Reconstruction

Peatlands are natural deposits of organic matter, sediments, and pollen that continuously record information about past ecological, environmental, and climatic conditions. These records include evidence of natural events such as volcanic eruptions, sea level changes, and glaciations.

The peatlands of Chilean Patagonia, due to their geographic location, are long-lived and deep, which allows access to high-resolution paleoenvironmental and climatic records. These peatlands are located in the southernmost area of South America and the Southern Hemisphere, directly influenced by the southern westerlies and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which makes these ecosystems unique terrestrial archives for investigating regional and global land–ocean-atmosphere interactions. The vast majority of the peatlands existing today in Chilean Patagonia have originated and developed since the last glacial maximum (LGM: about 20,000 years ago). Glacial and post-glacial processes modeled the topography of the landscape, originating shallow water bodies, and impermeable soils favorable for the onset of sediment and organic matter deposition over millennia [24]. Peatlands in Chilean Patagonia are mainly associated with areas of early deglaciation, near the maximum limits of ice extent during the LGM. For example, in the northern region of Chilean Patagonia (ca. 41°S) there are peatlands with ages close to 20,000 years [24] and in the central region (ca. 45°S) close to 18,000 years [41]. Peatlands appear to be associated with later deglaciations in the southern zone, ca. 17,000 years on Navarino island (ca. 54°S) [44]. Peatlands in Chilean Patagonia reach great depths, for example 14 and 11 m in the central and southern zones, respectively [41, 44]. The information obtained from paleoenvironmental and climatic records in Chilean Patagonian peatlands has high resolution and reliability, for example to analyze changes in carbon accumulation rates over time, they are important for understanding climate changes in the Southern Hemisphere and globally.

3.5 Chilean Patagonian Peatlands as Carbon Sinks

The plant biomass and humus that accumulate in peatlands contain carbon as part of their molecular structure; consequently, peat deposits represent important reservoirs of carbon [61]. For this reason, peatlands are a structural component of the global carbon cycle, actively participating in the regulation of the planet’s climate [65]. Peatlands also are one of the most important sources methane emissions (CH4) into the atmosphere [54]. Despite emitting carbonin the long term, carbon sequestration in peatlands has been greater than emissions, so they have consistently behaved as carbon sinks [17]. Peatlands cover an area of at least 31,000 km2 in the Magallanes Region [9] (in Spanish CONAF), about 90% of the total area nationally [10], and store between 3.6 and 4.8 Gt C [25]. This reservoir is five times greater than the total amount of carbon present in the aboveground biomass of Chile’s forests [25, 58], making peatlands the most important natural carbon reservoir in the country. It is currently not possible to establish whether the peatlands of Chilean Patagonia will behave as sinks or net carbon emitting sources to the atmosphere in the coming decades under anticipated global climate change scenarios [42]. However, during the last ca. 18,000 years [41], peatlands in Chilean Patagonia (Aysén) have accumulated peat at an average rate of 0.43 mm per year (n = 96), which translates into an average long-term carbon accumulation rate of ca. 12.25 gC m−2y−1 (Long-term Rate of Carbon Accumulation, LORCA) [26]. If the average rates of carbon accumulation in Chilean Patagonia are maintained over the next 30 years, which is the period projected by Chile to reach carbon neutrality, peatlands could represent one of the most important carbon sinks in the country, sequestering ca. 12 million t of carbon between 2020 and 2050 [26]. It is worth mentioning that peatlands which have been directly impacted by human activities, as well as those that will be affected by global climate change, could behave as carbon emitters and not as carbon sinks. Thus, both conservation and restoration of peatlands in Chile represent effective natural alternative mechanisms to achieve carbon neutrality, and thus contribute to mitigating the effects of climate change.

3.6 Main Anthropogenic Threats to Peatland Biodiversity

Land use change, introduction of invasive species, harvesting of Sphagnum moss, peat exploitation, and climate change are the main direct and indirect anthropogenic threats that affect the composition, diversity, and functioning of peatlands. Land use change for the purpose of increasing connectivity via new roads, especially in the Aysén and Magallanes regions, and the consequent installation of infrastructure for urban areas with limited planning represent a direct threat to peatlands [30]. These activities fragment peatland habitats and significantly affect ecosystem services, resulting in serious ecosystem degradation.

The beaver (Castor canadensis) is one of the invasive species that most severely impact peatlands and wetlands in Chilean Patagonia. The beaver is an ecosystem engineer that drastically alters the ecosystems it inhabits. This species was introduced in the Argentine sector of Tierra del Fuego in 1946; its current population on this island exceeds 100,000 individuals [2]. In 2016 it was estimated, by analysis of satellite images, that at least 0.6% of the peatlands had been affected by flooding caused by the construction of dams by this species [23]. However, an undetectable form of impact by beavers is the construction of galleries in the peat, which generate drainage of water from the peatland and thereby degrade the ecosystem [21]. This disrupts peat accumulation and increases the decomposition rate, transforming peatlands into net emitters of CO2 to the atmosphere. Exploited and abandoned peatlands are invaded by exotic vascular plants such as Holcus lanatus and Carex canescens, which generate significant changes in the cover and composition of the original flora of a Sphagnum peatland [12]. This floristic replacement prevents the recovery of degraded peatlands, and consequently they lose or diminish the ecosystem services that benefit society.

S. magellanicum moss in the country is mainly harvested for use in vertical gardening, biodegradable planters, kokedama, and as hydrocarbon adsorbents [14]. The export of dehydrated S. magellanicum for these purposes increased by approximately 200% between 2004 and 2014 [48] (in Spanish Oficina de Planificación Agrícola, ODEPA); Domínguez et al. [15]; Fig. 4). However, the economic benefits of S. magellanicum export have not reached the local communities that extract it manually, as the sale price remains between $2500 and $5000 Chilean pesos (CLP) per 50 kg green bag (wet basis). This causes rural producers to increase the volume of extraction to increase their income, leaving aside traditional techniques or good practices which are intended to make the harvest sustainable. An example of this situation was identified by Vaccarezza [62], who described how the unsustainable extraction of S. magellanicum in the Los Lagos Region has caused a major problem of water availability for rural populations and associated ecosystems.

Fig. 4
A Pareto chart has the following values. MOSS F O B, (1995, 218), (2008, 11424), (2019, 20987). Tons, (1995, 35), (2008, 3883), (2019, 4615). 2 percent MOSSFOB, (1996, 1000), (2008, 11000), (2019, 17000). 2 percent MOSSFOB values are estimated.

(Source ODEPA, Forestry Institute of Chile; in Spanish Instituto Forestal de Chile, IF)

National export of plant fiber from dehydrated Sphagnum magellanicum moss, in t and dollar FOB [28, 48]

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According to Domínguez et al. [12], in the Magallanes Region there have been eight peatland harvests in operation historically, with a total affected area of 444 hectares (ha), a low amount compared to the peat extraction carried out in the Argentinean area of Tierra del Fuego, where the extraction area reached an area of 4,600 ha [7] (Fig. 5). Only two projects for peat mining in the Magallanes Region have been approved by the Environmental Impact Assessment System (SEIA), equivalent to ca. 40% (178 ha) of the area under historical exploitation in the region [56]. This practice is very risky without an adequate environmental impact study, as the extraction causes the drainage of ecosystems, which are then left in the hands of the local communities [56].

Fig. 5
A panoramic view of a peat extraction site.

Peat extraction. The changes generated in the landscape, hydrology, topography and vegetation cover can be seen, the vegetation being completely eliminated, which collapses the functions and ecosystem services of the peatland. (Municipality of Punta Arenas, Magallanes Region) (Photo E. Domínguez)

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This leaves them vulnerable to fires, radically modifying the hydrology, topography, and net carbon emissions to the atmosphere, and consequently may cause the degradation and total loss of the functions of this ecosystem in the biosphere.

3.7 Peatland Conservation in Patagonia: Regulations, Opportunities and Barriers

Chile has recently committed to update its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement framework, incorporating peatlands as mitigators of the impacts of climate change, committing to carry out a national inventory that involves the identification of large peatland areas [46]. According to Yu et al. [65], peatlands in Patagonia (Chile and Argentina) cover an area of approximately 45,000 km2. However, this figure could overestimate the real area occupied by these ecosystems, since they are located in regions that are remote and often little explored. Furthermore, this estimate considers only natural peatland communities located south of ca. 45°S and does not consider anthropogenic peatlands. It is remarkable that despite this huge area in southern South America, peatlands have not been explicitly included in the national wetland inventory (Ministry of the Environment and Center for Applied Ecology [45], Saavedra and Villarroel [59], in Spanish Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, MMA). Peatlands, being a type of wetland, are under the international area of action of the Ramsar Convention, adopted by Chile in DS No. 771 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Spanish Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, MRE).

The exploitation of peat and the harvesting of Sphagnum magellanicum generate productive activities that differ in their regulatory framework and type of impact. Peat extraction is considered a mining activity, regulated by the MMA through Law No. 19,300 and its Supreme Decree No. 40, which stipulate that all peat extraction, regardless of its magnitude, is considered industrial. For this reason, all peat mining initiatives must be submitted to the Environmental Evaluation Service through an Environmental Declaration or Environmental Impact Study, depending on the surface area of the project and its impact on hydrology, topography, and biodiversity. In addition, as peat is considered a type of fossil soil, it is a non-renewable natural resource that can be requested as a concession under the Mining Code, Law No. 18,248. As in the case of water, it is considered a “national asset of public use” (article 595 of the Civil Code), for which use rights can be obtained under the Water Code (D.F.L. no. 1.122/1981, Ministry of Justice (in Spanish Ministerio de Justicia, MJ).

The lack of national regulation between 1995 and 2017, together with poor harvesting practices of S. magellanicum fiber, drainage alterations, and land use change, resulted in many cases in the replacement of peatlands by Eucalyptus plantations, which has caused irreversible deterioration of peatland ecosystems [50]. Particularly on the island of Chiloé, S. magellanicum peatlands fulfill strategic environmental services for agricultural activity and livestock farming by providing filtered fresh water that supplies rural wells. Mosses also have a great capacity to retain water and inhibit the growth of fungi and bacteria, properties that make them attractive as substrates for orchid cultivation in Asian countries. These qualities have generated interest in harvesting and marketing this resource for export, mainly as raw material with no added value. The first exports began in 1995 and maintained continuous growth until 2013 (5325 t), the year when environmental problems caused by the absence of regulations began to be manifest in Chile (Fig. 4). However, recently the Ministry of Agriculture (in Spanish Ministerio de Agricultura, MA) recognized S. magellanicum as a silvoagricultural resource, creating in 2017 the first regulatory instrument that aims to protect this resource and mitigate environmental, social and economic impacts in the areas where it is harvested. Subsequently, in 2019 Supreme Decree No. 25 was enacted in Chile for the protection of S. magellanicum; it gave powers to the Agricultural and Livestock Service, as the governing body, to require and oversee harvesting plans, as well as to conduct training on sustainable moss collection and harvesting practices in Chile. DS No. 25 prohibits the use of large machinery in harvesting the resource and proposes to encourage a sustainable resource management plan. However, it does not specify how training will be carried out, and even more critically, no distinction is made as to whether the moss is harvested from pomponales or natural peat bogs.

Although much of the range of peatland ecosystems (>75%) in western Patagonia is protected in national parks and reserves, and new regulations have recently been created, they do not regulate all the components of peatlands, such as the conservation of biodiversity, and biogeochemical flows. The main problem lies in the separation of different biotic elements of an ecosystem into different institutional jurisdictions and regulations regarding their regulation and management, omitting the role and value of biodiversity as an integrator of the multiple levels of ecosystem functioning. The “Moss Layer Transfer Technique” has been developed for restoration of exploited peatlands in the country; it consists of the collection of live fibers of S. magellanicum and their subsequent implantation in intervened areas. This technique has several limiting factors, the main ones being the high cost and lack of explicitness of the objective to be achieved; for example: repair, recovery, rehabilitation, or ecological restoration of the previously intervened peatland [13, 12]. These situations keep peatlands in a state of vulnerability, and consequently threaten the functions and ecosystem services they provide to society. In addition, there is currently no effective transfer of information on the scope of the regulations to help citizens and authorities understand the importance of their application in order to maintain the functions and services provided by these ecosystems. Therefore, in addition to the new regulations created, it is necessary to generate coordinated networks including academic institutions, social, educational, and governmental organizations, and to propose strategies to be included in decision-making. One alternative for the protection of peatlands in Chilean Patagonia is their inclusion as part of the so-called Natural Climate Solutions (Natural Climate Solutions or Nature-Based Solutions [47]). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [29] determined that peatlands represent an immediate impact alternative for climate change mitigation. These strategies seek, through conservation, restoration and proper land management, to increase carbon storage capacity in landscapes, as well as to decrease greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4) in different ecosystems such as forests, peatlands and grasslands, thus mitigating climate change [19]. Therefore, it is imperative to promote the protection, conservation and restoration of peatlands, with the aim of maintaining or increasing their capacity to act as carbon sinks, an urgent function of national importance to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations

  1. (i)

    Peatlands harbor vast biodiversity, with a high proportion of species endemic to southern South America; they regulate multiple levels of ecosystem functioning and provide innumerable benefits and services that improve the quality of life of human societies.

  2. (ii)

    Natural peatlands throughout western and eastern Patagonia are unique millennial archives for understanding ecological, environmental and climatic changes in the Southern Hemisphere. These ecosystems should be considered millennial heritage ecosystems.

  3. (iii)

    Peatlands are one of the most important carbon sinks in Chile, so both restoration and conservation of pristine peatlands represent effective alternative mechanisms to achieve the country’s projected carbon neutrality by 2050. However, peatlands are being directly impacted by human extractive activities and roads, as well as by global climate change, and therefore could behave as carbon emitters rather than carbon sinks.

  4. (iv)

    The current regulations that regulate and supervise the management of both moss harvesting and peat extraction divide ecosystems into different components, causing different institutions and regulations to act in parallel according to their own interests, and fail to recognize the interaction of the multiple levels at which the ecosystem functions and the landscape in which they are inserted. In view of this, laws should be modified or redesigned.

  5. (v)

    The current management of peat extraction from natural ecosystems is not sustainable, because it leads to the drastic modification of hydrology, topography, and natural biogeochemical cycles and loss of biota, making the recovery of complex food webs and their role in the various ecosystem functions impossible. Adequate management and conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services generates multiple benefits to society and can bring greater benefits to human beings than land use change, which causes the loss of natural habitats.

  6. (vi)

    Most current natural peatland restoration practices are costly and lack a clear objective (e.g. social, economic, ecological). There are no successful examples of restoration of peatlands and their diverse ecosystem functions in Chile.

We also provide the following recommendations:

  • Undertake a national inventory that includes the description, conservation status, identification of critical areas and implementation of their monitoring, as far as possible under standard international methodologies. This would be an essential step to obtain baseline information and thus better address decision-making regarding the management and conservation of pristine peatland ecosystems in climate change mitigation.

  • Incorporation of these ecosystems into international networks and treaties, to increase the interaction of management and conservation experiences and to have a regulatory policy consistent with the role of peatlands as global climate regulators. The millenary climate records provided by peatlands are a powerful tool to be included in global climate change projection models.

  • Integrate and strengthen the institutions that regulate and govern national peatland activities and property rights. The legal dismemberment of peat, sphagnum moss, and water in different institutions and with different legal frameworks, currently prevents a single governance to manage holistically the goods, services and ecosystem functions of peatlands. The principle of progressive improvement should be advanced order to maintain the well-being of key ecosystems such as peatlands as a human right to a healthy environment.

  • Maintain the maximum number of natural peatlands in a pristine state and avoid land use change as much as possible, together with greater dissemination of the multiple natural benefits that these ecosystems provide to society in the medium- and long-term, which are greater than those derived from the exploitation of peat, which generates only short-term economic benefits and that do not necessarily even benefit local communities.

  • Promote and expand environmental education and special interest tourism (based on cultural and environmental identity) for the incorporation of the communities of the region. Peatlands are part of the environmental culture of Chilean Patagonia and an asset for tourism throughout their distribution. Through environmental education, we must seek to transform the habits that make our socioeconomic development model incompatible with the conservation of these ecosystems.