Keywords

3.1 Introduction

Formal and non-formal education pathways have a crucial role to play in preventing rural youth from becoming and remaining not in Employment, nor in Education or Training (NEET). The school-to-work transition is complex as are the multi-layered actions that impact that environment such as macrosystem policy, mesosystem-level governance, and microsystem-level aiming at these young people’s engagement with education. Foundational issues for the success of these interventions include (a) rural education infrastructure and human resources that support the school-to-work transition; (b) mapping non-formal education aimed at vulnerable young people in rural areas, in terms of existing infrastructures, types of organization, and types of interventions; (c) the role of Vocational Education and Training (VET) in preventing Early School Leaving from Education and Training (ESLET) in rural areas; and (d) analyzing how the available curricula address local resources and map onto the needs of these young people. This chapter will present a contextualization of the aforementioned issues, thus providing a heretofore much-needed characterization of the naturalistic context of educational provision targeted at rural NEETs in Europe.

To conduct our analysis, we focus on Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model, which constitutes a theoretical framework for understanding the complex relationship between rural NEET young people and their environment, at various levels (macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem), with a direct impact on the development of these young people (Bronfenbrenner, 1999). In line with this theoretical framework, we present a multiple case study from five countries (Estonia, Italy, Latvia, Albania, and Portugal) based on a qualitative approach. Each intervention is developed in the context of national or EU programs in formal and non-formal education settings. The results of the work of Petrescu et al. (2020) and Erdogan et al. (2022) enabled the identification and characterization of five best practice interventions. We feature such interventions here as macro, meso, and micro-level interventions that are present for adoption in cognate contexts: (1) macro-level (EU or state-level interventions, top-down actions, that may include reforms); (2) meso-level (regional or networked coordinated interventions that are influenced or informed by the macro-level, actions that inform local or small-scale interventions) and; (3) micro-level (localized activities that are effective in their own environment, community engagement projects that may have potential for bottom-up reforms). The establishment of COST Action Rural NEET Youth Network Working Group 2, which seeks to understand the educational challenges that NEETs face in rural settings, has resulted in a critical mass of researchers focused on this area. We seek to present an insight into the reflexive relationship that is needed between the three levels, identifying some commonalities that can help to arrest the prevalence of young people from entering or staying in the NEET status in rural areas where ESLET is more prevalent (Eurostat, 2020). Finally, some general recommendations are outlined which suggest actions that may benefit rural NEET engagement with formal or non-formal educational interventions.

3.2 Supporting Macro-level Educational Interventions

When thinking about educational interventions, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model draws a theoretical framework for understanding the complex interplay between human development and environmental factors focusing on the agentic role of individual development (Guy-Evans, 2020). At the macrosystem level, the bioecological model can support education and school-to-work transition by examining the broader cultural, social, economic, and political systems as elements that can make a meaningful contribution to education (Bronfenbrenner, 1999; Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000). An important contribution of Bronfenbrenner’s model at the macrosystem level is that it helps us to understand the reflexive relationship between education and the cultural and social values that form the holistic perspective of education by those that inform the sector and participate within it. The model is also crucial in how we determine extant and emergent barriers in the connection between the social context and the education systems. It is this connectivity that the model allows which can play a key role in supporting policy change and analyzing economic and political systems for the benefit of European citizenship in general (INSTAT, 2021). These contributions of the bioecological model are summarized in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1
A chart presents the 4 contributions of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model to education and school-to-work transitions. They are determining barriers in social and educational systems, analyzing economic and political systems, supporting policy change, and understanding cultural and social values.

Contributions of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model to education and school-to-work transition at the macrosystem

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Understanding the cultural and social values is a key element shaping educational systems in rural areas and when considering how an educational intervention might offer opportunities for rural NEETs in particular. The value placed on education and the belief in any educational system by those who are disengaged from education and training pathways are important elements for composing educational policies that might shape educational practices. The consideration of these values at the macrosystem level when thinking about how policy can impact the role of educators and trainers in rural settings. An absence of connectivity to such values can only hinder their expectation to align their efforts with the needs of rural students especially when designing teaching methods and curricula.

Based on this, cultural and social values in rural areas have a critical influence on the availability of opportunities for individual citizens to learn and develop skills (Simões et al., 2022). Therefore it is important that the design and delivery of educational programs embrace these cultural and social factors that affect NEETs living in rural areas if the overall incidence rate of rural NEETs is to be reduced (Cabinet of Ministers Republic of Latvia, 2021). From the bioecological model perspective, at the macrosystem level, cultural norms, laws, and social policies shape the opportunities and constraints of individuals. Therefore, the development of policies and curricula at the macrosystem level will have an important impact on the school-to-work transition and educational attainment level of rural NEETs in key areas such as (a) improvement of the educational conditions of both teachers and students; (b) provision of targeted incentives to rural NEETs to engage them with educational programs; (c) meaningful and situated training curricula relevant to rural youth; (d) improved regulations for professional development; and (e) development of policies that concomitantly improve social and educational facilities in rural settings. In order to meet these pillars, interventions operating at the macrosystem must include a detailed analysis of the country’s political and educational system and how they can specifically address rural NEETs. Given rural NEETs are in a disadvantaged group and experience a greater need for the distribution of resources and opportunities within society than other demographic groups, it is vital that actors at the macrosystem level identify the challenges faced in contemporaneous situations and take measures for the development of both educators and students which are duly informed by the lived experience of rural NEETs. In such a way, the practices, education system, teaching methods, and all components of education will be framed and shaped by the political and educational system at the macrosystem level—meaning they are connected (INSTAT, 2021). Policy reforms that target rural NEETs are well illustrated in Italy, presented in Box 3.1.

Box 3.1

Educational policy reforms at the macrosystem: example from Italy

In Italy, Law 107 was adopted in 2015 to make secondary education less theoretical and closer to what the labor market requires. The main goal of this school reform was to integrate the school pathway of students with greater knowledge about and experience of career practices. The law consists of the provision of additional hours in the compulsory school program to be organized in coordination with factories and institutions, and consisting of practical courses on the activities usually performed in the workplace. Since its introduction, there are significant signs of progress in terms of the improvement of school programs. Also, many schools have created education committees composed of teachers and experts in the labor market, professional representatives, and scientific and technological units. These scientific committees are expected to enforce the connections between the school’s educational objectives, the needs of local communities where schools are located, and the professional needs of the local labor markets (Rocca, 2023).

While the aforementioned considerations are necessary to improve the condition of rural NEETs and such action must occur at the macrosystem level, barriers to getting this work done are prevalent. Stagnant political system processes hinder the capacity of any willing and empowered educational system to ameliorate the challenges faced by NEETs and to aid efforts to reach them. However, an application of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological model can help identify such systemic barriers for rural NEETs access to formal and non-formal education. These include, as we have seen in previous chapters, gender disparities, poor socioeconomic conditions (Simões, 2023), or lower levels of civic and social participation, due to a limited number of opportunities to do so that disproportionately affect vulnerable rural young people (Tatiana et al., 2023). Examining and assessing these barriers will help managers and educators to create a more equitable, tailored, and inclusive educational system. Presently, the absence of a comprehensive framework to support youth development through the identification of systemic problems is a challenge in and of itself for macrosystem level actors such as policymakers, educators, and other stakeholders within education systems. The employment of Bronfenbrenner’s model could provide an opportunity for targeted reforms as part of larger cultural and social contexts. Taking this approach, NEETs’ individual opportunities and experiences can be demonstrably improved by including values, beliefs, norms, and habits within macro-level decision-making processes thus offering the potential to challenge the discrimination that NEETs face based on race, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation.

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model can also support policy innovation and development by highlighting the systemic factors that influence the education and training of NEETs in rural areas, including knowing and reaching out to young people. Policy innovation in outreaching rural NEETs is well illustrated by the Estonian, presented in Box 3.2.

Box 3.2

Policy innovation in outreaching rural NEETs: example from Estonia

In Estonia, various measures have been developed for the purpose of more effectively outreaching rural NEETs. One of them is the Youth Guarantee Support System (YGSS). Through cross-sectoral cooperation involving social work, youth work, education, and internal security, among other stakeholders, this system significantly improves identification and outreach to NEETs by local authorities, thus increasing these young people’s odds of returning to education, including through non-formal learning possibilities. YGSS is part of the Estonian Youth Guarantee Action Plan and is a hands-on tool for local municipalities. YGSS makes use of IT solutions for aggregating data from nine national registers in order to identify potential 16- to 26-year-old NEETs while offering case management guides for contacting target groups and offering suitable help. The long-term aim of this initiative is to support youth to go back to education or the labor market. The impact and effectiveness analysis of the implementation of the Youth Guarantee Support System points out that active labor market measures, networking, personal counseling, and prevention play a major role in supporting the continuation of young people in education and the transition to the labor market. The YGSS, in coordination with other services, directly supports the alleviation of the situation of young people in the NEET status in Estonia (Paabort, 2023).

In summary, relevant policy changes at the macrosystem involve giving priority to the education of rural NEETs. Promoting policies at the macrosystem level will generate an innovation pipeline of new tools and curricula for educators and trainers which will end up being more effective in the provision of a tailored and equitable educational system that embraces the lived experiences of rural NEETs. The bioecological model provides a useful framework for understanding the macro-level problems of rural NEETs and for identifying their needs. Policymakers, educators, and all stakeholders in education can advocate for the creation of an environment needed to shape the education of rural NEETs by taking into account the broader cultural, social, economic, and political systems thus creating the conditions for a more effective education system.

3.3 Supporting Meso-level Educational Interventions

According to the bioecological model, the mesosystem is associated with enduring and persistent forms of interactions occurring in the immediate environment of ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1999). Such immediate environments can be (a) educational institutions represented by communities of teachers, mentors, trainers, educators, and associated stakeholders; (b) communities of classmates, friends, neighbors, and peers; or (c) families including parents and their children.

The mesosystem is where individual microsystems are interconnected and influence each other (Guy-Evans, 2020). An important feature of the bioecological model is that the environment, in addition to being fueled by dynamic interactions of ecosystems, also initiates and sustains continual development and changes that occur in the individuals themselves. This means that any mesosystem analysis should employ a holistic approach to the systems and real-life relationships of young people. Therefore, by using the bioecological model lens, emphasis is given to the links developed between different institutions that will ultimately have an impact on personal development, as well as on the environment itself and the unity of ecological systems. When the links between ecological systems are broken, certain developmental disparities occur in the form of disharmony or even crises, that can have implications at the community and/or personal levels. As an example, it can be said that the educational institution and the labor market represent an interconnected whole. When the links between school and the labor market are broken, this has negative impacts on each of the systems, as well as on the individuals themselves. Indicators of broken connections between ecosystems include ESLET, youth unemployment, or becoming and remaining in the NEET condition. When large shares of young people are in any of these conditions, this shows that the transition from education to employment is associated with certain deficits, while lacking the necessary skills activation and skills demand and supply matching, thus reflecting that the links between different elements of the mesosystem are broken. As a consequence of this, young people can easily fall into poverty, social exclusion, and personal disadvantage (Bronfenbrenner, 1999; Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).

In countries such as Albania and Latvia, the existing indicators show some signs of a difficult connection between schools and the labor market. In 2021, the rate of young people aged 18–24 years who are early school leavers in Albania reached 17.4% while youth unemployment for those in the group 15–29 reached 20.6% (INSTAT, 2021). Overall, the labor market in Albania is characterized by decreasing but still high unemployment (12.5%), informality, low participation of youth (45.2% overall) as well as low participation of women (gender gap of 15%). Moreover, the share of NEETs in the country is above 27%. In Latvia, 9.8% of 18- to 24-year-olds had not completed school (Cabinet of Ministers Republic of Latvia, 2021), and ESLET rates are larger in rural areas. Moreover, in 2018 in Latvia, 6.2% of students in cities left school before secondary education completion compared to 13.4% of students doing the same in rural areas (Cabinet of Ministers Republic of Latvia, 2021).

Based on this data, which clearly shows disparities between rural and urban areas, particularly in Latvia, the bioecological model implies provides the opportunity for rethinking support and assistance services to young people who experience various deficits in their more localized, ecological systems. Such interventions often relate to the VET system, as well as individualized measures aimed at overcoming ESLET. Individualized measures to improve skills, as well as preparing individual plans for working with learners at risk of dropping out, represent forms of social support at the mesosystem level of intervention. Below in Box 3.3, we describe the case of Albania as a relevant example of how reforms of the VET system at the mesosystem level may come to support rural NEETs educational prospects.

Box 3.3

Reform of the VET system: example from Albania

The reform of the VET system for improving the employment future prospects of youth is a priority of the Albanian Government. Reforms aimed at increasing the quality of education, developing adequate qualifications, fostering skills recognition, and improving the attractiveness and relevance of the VET system to match the skills demand of the private sector. To support this work the relevant macro-level policy framework is currently being improved which will, in turn, facilitate a restructuring of the governance of the sector. While this is a good example of where connections between the macro and meso-level initiatives can flourish, more efforts are needed specifically in relation to training and acquisition of professional skills and transferable skills by young people in the form of target interventions at the mesosystem level. In Albania, ongoing efforts include a movement to improve vocational education and to ensure system changes, capacity development, and empowerment of key actors in the project ‘Skills for Jobs’ (S4J) (INSTAT, 2021). These efforts are expected to provide young people in Albania with better vocational education and training. The project facilitates the development of quality VET offers by supporting VET providers in offering labor market integration facilities underpinned by strong networks with employers that include dual approaches and new ways of learning The outcome of this ongoing work is that young people have the opportunity to access market-oriented formal and non-formal education and training programs delivered in new and relevant ways of inclusive learning in the tourism, hospitality, construction, textile, and ICT sectors. The expected key result of the project is to improve the VSD training offer for up to 9500 young Albanian women and men and to actively place 60% among them in attractive and sustainable employment. Special consideration is given to the training and employment opportunities for young women and special-needs groups (Tase, 2023).

In Box 3.4 we also depict one example coming out from Latvia on how to shape mesosystem preventive educational interventions with a potentially positive impact on rural NEETs secondary education completion.

Box 3.4

ESLET prevention: example from Latvia

In Latvia, one of the approaches to tackle problems faced by NEETs has been to focus on the prevention of ESLET. This goal can be effectively achieved when a strong collaboration between schools and other stakeholders is established. The support program “Pumpurs” in Latvia (European Social Fund; project Nr. 8.3.4.0/16/I/001) is mainly aimed at reducing ESLET across all key stages of secondary education (Project Pumpurs, 2022; The State Education Quality Service, 2020). It is a macrosystem level initiative that is implemented at the mesosystem level by any school and local municipality that want to become a project partner. The program is expected to involve all regions of Latvia, including rural ones. “Pumpurs” is aimed at pupils from the 1st to the 12th grade including those enrolled in VET. Students identified as those at risk can also apply individually, allowing program teams to tailor the intervention according to young people’s features, thus promoting the most effective use of resources available. At the beginning of the semester, the teacher develops an individual support plan for each student involved in the program, assessing the risk of dropout. This report also outlines the necessary support measures to reduce dropout risk based on an available list of resources and activities. The outcomes of the project are divided into long and short-term outcomes. First, through the involvement of local governments and schools, individual support is provided to learners who may drop out of school due to a lack of financial resources. Expenses for transport, meals, accommodation, etc. are therefore reimbursed. However, the main focus of the project is not the provision of short-term financial assistance. Therefore, an important goal at the mesosystem level is the creation of a sustainable comprehensive mechanism that facilitates a supportive and inclusive environment for all learners. The project initially planned to involve at least 80% of local governments, covering not less than 665 general and vocational education institutions in Latvia. In 2020/2021 a total of 19,757 individual assistance and development plans were prepared as a part of the project. Funding will continue to be rolled out until 2023 (Hačatrjana, 2023).

In summary, in Albania and Latvia, the outlined projects aim to improve the VET system, providing expertise and good practices, as well as reducing early school leavers rates. They are thus fuelled by macro-level support policies for developing meso-level programs. These projects show the importance of improving links between educational institutions, the VET system, and the labor market. This interconnectedness strengthens the skills system and translates into more sustainable VET provision in the long term, preventing broken links between formal education and the work market.

3.4 Supporting Micro-level Educational Interventions

The microsystem is the level of the bioecological model comprising individuals’ direct interactions in their immediate living environment, including significant others such as parents, teachers, or school peers (Bronfenbrener, 1999). Relationships at the microsystem level are bi-directional, meaning other people can influence the individuals in their environment and can also change their beliefs and actions. The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and supporting individual development (Guy-Evans, 2020). More specifically, they are defined as a pattern of activities, social roles, and interpersonal relationships experienced by the developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical, social, and symbolic features that invite, permit, or inhibit engagement in sustained, progressively more complex interaction with, and activity in, the immediate environment (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000). In the literature, there are several studies underlining the key role that the microsystem plays in enhancing young people’s development. The bioecological model provides the most comprehensive theoretical construct to date for investigating such interactions at the microsystem level namely in an institutional setting such as an educational one (Allen et al., 2012). According to Krishnan (2010), in the school ecological system (microsystem), as well as in non-formal education contexts, an array of direct and indirect interactions take place. Young people exist in this system of interconnected relationships, roles, activities, and settings (Shelton, 2019). This includes face-to-face interactions between students and students and students and teachers or between students and staff (Dehuff, 2013; Goodenow, 1993). Moreover, the interactions between parents and students at home, another element of the microsystem, can also increase e students’ motivation and sense of belonging to their school (Uslu & Gizir, 2017).

From the bioecological perspective, a good example of the importance and impact of close networking for rural young people’s school engagement at the microsystem level is the Chances program conducted in Portugal (Rodrigues, 2023). This program is part of multiple initiatives taken in the country following a major policy decision in 2009 to increase compulsory education from 9 to 12 school years (Simões et al., 2020). These initiatives have proven to be effective, according to some of the main indicators depicting young people’s situation regarding school and the transition to the labour market. However, disparities remain between urban and rural areas according to different indicators. In 2022, ESLET rates in Portugal reached 6% overall but were higher in rural areas (7.9%) when compared to cities (4.4%). Seemingly, in the same year, the NEET rate for the whole country reached 8.4%. Again the share of NEETs was higher in the Portuguese countryside (9.7%) compared to Portuguese cities (7.6%). Moreover, in 2022, tertiary education attainment reached 43% in Portugal. Nevertheless, figures for this indicator were almost twice higher in Portuguese cities (47.7%) compared to rural areas (24%) across the country.

As mentioned above, the Choices program is among several on-the-ground initiatives to tackle school drop-out rates and raise school attainment levels. Choices is a nationwide government program created in 2001, whose mission is to promote social inclusion of children and young people between the ages of 6 and 25 from vulnerable socioeconomic contexts aiming at equal opportunities and strengthening social cohesion (Council of Ministers Resolution No. 71/2020). The program is project-based and the implementation of each initiative under the program is made possible through local partnerships. A specific practice of the Choices Project in a rural area of the northeast interior of Portugal aimed at promoting school success and social inclusion of children and young people, as presented below in Box 3.5.

Box 3.5

Promoting school attainment in rural areas: example from Portugal

A study support practice was created in 2013 targeting children and young people from the neighborhoods of the intervention area of the Choices Project. The students included in the project come, in general, from families with low levels of educational attainment. Children’s parents often perform unqualified jobs or are unemployed. The primary aim of the program is to foster school success and progress in school results by providing educational support centered on school guidance and follow-up providing support in individual learning and enhancing children and young people’s collaborative work skills. The activities of the program are channeled towards the stimulation of cognitive and academic skills based on negotiation processes that develop from the close relationship between children and youth and the technical team fostering individualized learning (Rodrigues, 2023). These types of practices also intend to contribute to overcoming school failure, dropout, and ESLET thus focusing on individual learning, reorganization of human resources in support of learning and communication as well as collaboration among the actors involved (Antunes, 2017).

The close relationship between the technical team, as significant adults, and the children and young people participating in the program has a very significant impact on the success of the activities carried out and, therefore, on school success. In general, it appears that the program enhances the capacity to generate change in both individuals and the community, constituting for most participants the only community-based response to support overcoming school failure, dropout, and ESLET and, thus, promoting social inclusion (Rodrigues, 2023).

Overall, specific interventions at the microsystem level have a crucial role in the NEET’s life, in their social inclusion, and in a smoother transition to the labor market. Furthermore, this intervention shows how different educational methods can support young people and their performance. The Bioecological Model provides a useful framework for understanding the micro-level problems of rural NEETs and how such interventions like Choice can affect them at a more nuanced—personal level.

3.5 Conclusion

This chapter on education and non-formal learning presented five case studies, two at the macrosystem level, two at the mesosystem level, and one at the microsystem level of interventions. The selected interventions outlined here are primarily related to rural NEETs envisioning the long-term goals of reengaging with education, highlighting its importance for young people, or preventing ESLET through the approach. Macrosystem level interventions focused primarily on national reforms that either affect the education sector or youth support systems functioning across the country. In Estonia, for instance, various measures have been developed and one of them is the YGSS, an overall framework that has significantly improved the outreach and identification of NEETs in municipalities and better integrate them through cross-sectoral collaboration (social work, youth work, education, internal security, etc.). In Italy, we described how Law 107 was implemented in 2015 to make high secondary school less theoretical and disconnected from the labor of work, by integrating the school pathway of students with more knowledge and experience of career practices.

Both of the meso-level interventions provide insights into on-the-ground interventions. We saw that the Albanian Government is reforming the VET system and targeting the unemployment situation so that young women and men from all social groups in Albania have the opportunity to find attractive and rewarding jobs thanks to improved skills. In Latvia, there is a focus on reducing early school leaving and it is organized as a national-level program where an individualized approach to educational engagement is central to activities. An additional example from Portugal illustrates interventions conducted at the microsystem level, highlighting the role of non-formal education in addressing regional inequality and establishing a positive influence on youth performances ahead of entering the labor market.

It is clear that formal education and non-formal learning intervention or reforms, at all levels, have an important function in the NEET or at-risk youth support system. Interventions or reforms that support the development of young people or prevent them from falling into the NEET status are critically important. However, they can only be effective when designed to respond to the contextual sensitivities of the young people that they target. The bioecological model provides us with a framework for improving contextual sensitivity of educational policies and interventions work and for understanding the complex relationship between opportunities for rural NEET young people and different policies and programs operating at various levels.

3.5.1 New Research Developments

Based on the work presented in this chapter, we consider that the following areas should frame new research developments.

  • A comprehensive review of educational policy that targets rural youth. It is clear from the development of this chapter that more work is needed to develop a clear understanding of the European educational policy landscape cognizant of the jurisdictional sensitivities of state-level ministries of education. This work is essential for enabling an effective sharing of best practices.

  • A structured program of research to develop a deeper understanding of the horizontal traits of effective interventions. While the work presented here provides critical insight into educational programs that are making a difference for rural young people it is also clear that we do not know enough about how such programs generate impacts in the short, medium, and long term, beyond large-scale data sets.

  • The development of a dedicated dissemination pathway for sharing best practices. In order to share best practices it is essential that the research ecosystem that has emerged from the COST Action Rural NEET Youth Network develops a long-term, sustainable ecosystem so that the aforementioned recommendations can be actioned.

3.5.2 Policy Recommendations

  • Based on the work presented in this chapter, the following general recommendations can be made for policy development.

  • Macrosystem level policy decisions need to be informed by meso and micro-level research. While large-scale datasets provide direction, it is clear that the rich, qualitative smaller-scale studies could provide policymakers with critical markers of success.

  • Mesosystem level actors can act as connectors between the various levels. State or regional-level decision-makers and intervention designers are ideally placed to develop an environment where conversations between policymakers and those who carry out work on the ground can engage in a dialogue focused on educational design that seeks to target rural youth.

  • Successful microsystem level interventions should be modeled for replication. Currently, micro-level interventions are rarely modeled for replication. They are generally highlighted as successful. Given the work in this chapter, which has highlighted that local sensitivity and contextualization are key characteristics of any successful intervention, it is vital that those who may seek to replicate such work understand the ‘how’ of that action.