Keywords

1 Introduction

Years ago, university certification led to automatic employment, and countries would assume that graduate teachers were fully equipped with the required skills and knowledge. However, the latter concept has weakened through the years, and the responsibility of recruitment was taken entirely by the government and the Ministry of education.

Locally, the current Kingdom of Saudi Arabia licensing programme measures new and experienced teachers with essential skills and knowledge. However, keeping in view the regional visions, Saudi Arabia reinforced the diversity in the region to attract the country's best minds to fill the needs. The KSA government is undergoing significant reform under the National Transformation Plan (NTP), and education is at the centre of Vision 2030 (Patalong, 2016). Vision 2030 seeks to align the needed skills with the modern labour market (Moshashai and Bazoobandi, 2020) and overcome the challenges.

However, teacher licensure exams remain central to the legitimate teaching certification process, and substantial effort is devoted to improving the status quo’s validity and reliability.

1.1 The Research Questions

The study revolved around the following question: What is the status of teacher licensure in Saudi Arabia? And the following sub-questions:

  1. 1

    What are the common themes associated with developing and implementing the 2019 updated version of teacher licensing?

  2. 2

    What are teachers’ perceptions of the teacher licensure programme in KSA?

  3. 3

    Are there any demographic differences in teachers’ perceptions of the T.L program in KSA?

  4. 4

    How do school leaders and policymakers perceive the teacher licensure programme policy and practice in KSA?

1.2 The Significance and the Aim of the Study

The current study has the potential to highlight on the importance of continuous improvement and evaluation of the licensing programme in Saudi Arabia. In response to regional future visions and expectations, Saudi Arabia in particular, this study has adopted varied instruments for additional reliability. The comprehensive data and findings from the data analysis generated valuable references for further study. The study aimed to investigate the development and implementation process of the 2019 T.L. programme in the KSA. Accordingly, the study provided policymakers a recommended framework that could be considered when assessing the T.L. to provide better market-based skills and take relevant measures to implement vision 2030.

2 Theoretical Underpinning

2.1 Conceptual Framework

Teacher Quality.

The most assuring approach to improving public education outcomes is improving teacher quality, which is considered one of the few subjects where education stakeholders agree (Teacher et al., 2010). In Mitchell et al. (2001), teacher quality cannot be defined clearly because it is complex and can change with social demands and values. Therefore, teacher quality will continue to evolve as societies develop new skills, raise standards, and meet complex demands.

Licensing Test Accountability.

The issue of licensing test accountability has contributed to teacher licensure instability since the 1990s (Cobb et al., 1999). In contrast, Shuls and Trivitt (2015) found that the licensure exam is regarded as a positive indicator of teacher effectiveness for two reasons. Candidates with good content knowledge can pass the topic to students efficiently. Second, passing the exam indicates intelligence, just as the SAT & ACT correlate positively with teacher effectiveness.

Professional Development.

Educators are expected to be of the highest quality, not just when they enter the workforce. Continually learning teachers are more effective and influence school development, according to Wermke (2011). What growth do teachers need? Continuing career growth is necessary for teachers to meet educational demands and develop (Lewis, 1999) to solve problems, work smarter, and demonstrate higher quality. Virtual classes and mandatory technology integration are driving rapid change in education.

Relevant Culture.

The study explored the T.L. programme in the context of the national culture of the KSA. The Gulf states share several characteristics: political, cultural, social, and economic, which have been identified as a ‘Gulf state phenomenon’ (Wiseman and Al-Bakr, 2013). Consequently, Gulf Region teachers face similar concerns and challenges. According to Planel (1997), countries encounter cross-cutting differences across regions, gender, social class, and ethnic groups. The study considered regional boundaries, revealing substantial similarities in beliefs and education standards.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Constructivism Theory.

Scholars like Piaget (1954), Dewey (1929), and Vygotsky (1978) assured that the learner comes to a learning environment with prior schemata that determine the learner's attitude towards the new learning (Hyslop-Margison and Strobel, 2007). Brau (2018) outlined that constructivism is divided into two main pillars: (1) cognitive constructivism suggests that building knowledge depends on an individual's interpretation of experiences, and (2) social constructivism confirms that individuals build knowledge through social interaction. According to Dagar and Yadav (2016), learners are active agents responsible for constructing information by revising the rules, analyzing, and reflecting. Thus, constructivism needs self-regulation and the ability to fit new concepts into what has been taught.

Self- Efficacy Theory by Bandura- 1997.

Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to perform the best, affecting the current and future situation. Self-efficacy beliefs decide personal feelings, thinking, motivation, and behaviour. Hence, four major processes are included (1) cognitive, (2) motivation, (3) affection, and (4) selection. According to Bandura (2006), an individual's self-efficacy is developed from four primary resources: “mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional states” (Petchauer, 2012).

Evaluation Theories and Techniques.

One of the primary objectives of the teacher licensure exam and evaluation is to measure quality for better teaching and learning. However, measuring the educational quality is a complex process because several components impact the quality, such as teachers, school culture, parents’ involvement, students, and administrators. Moreover, teaching is a highly complex task which requires multiple teaching decisions at the same time. According to Papanastasiou (1999), teacher evaluation should be formative and descriptive, not judgmental, by connecting professional development with the evaluation.

Socio-Culture Theory by Vygotsky- 1978.

Considering that the study was conducted in the Gulf context while seeking an international benchmark, the diversity of culture and society plays a crucial role. Pound (2015) pointed out that Vygotsky (1978) highlighted the impact of culture on identity growth. The teacher develops through social dialogues with experts and knowledgeable people.

2.3 Related Studies

Mitchell et al. (2001b) presented an extensive report on candidates' tests and the licensing test's impact on improving quality. They recommended that each state use a different evidence system to qualify a teacher.

A case study was conducted by Garner and Kaplan (2021) to examine high school teacher professional development in a complex and dynamic context during summer. The findings concluded that the collective group was not satisfied with taking the workshop during summer.

Stotsky (2009) presented a report to the New Jersey State Advisory Committee about the ineffective and biased academic licensure tests presented to urban student teachers. The author called for federal intervention to ensure that teacher licensure tests were reliable.

Wiseman and Al-Bakr (2013) synthesized the literature review and found that teacher certification had no significant evidence on students' outcomes in the Gulf countries.

Libman (2012) suggested that governments should regulate and frame licensing exams, and that students' abilities and family background are the largest source of variation in student learning. Furthermore, teacher quality is the most significant variable that impacts student learning.

Lamprianou and Arabia (2013) investigated teachers' performance on the new T.L. test in the KSA. The results revealed that university graduation and specialty year significantly impacted teachers' exam scores, while training programmes varied in influence.

Larsen et al. (2021) used data from 1991–2007 of 37 dimensions or certificate requirements and found that the stricter the requirements, the higher the teacher quality.

3 Methodology and Approach

3.1 Research Approach and Design

The study adopts a multi-phase exploratory sequential mixed method design in three stages: stage one collecting secondary data from official documents and websites. Stage two: collecting quantitative data from teachers’ surveys and stage three: collecting comprehensive qualitative data from school leaders’ questionnaire (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.
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(Source: Author)

The Study Mixed- Method Methodology

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3.2 Research Methodology

Study Context and Site.

The KSA is considered an appropriate context for the research since the country just started an updated licensing program in 2019, mainly within a semi-governmental organization. The leading site of the study was the public schools where the teachers who applied were fully licensed or were in the process of licensing.

Sampling.

The study provided varied sampling designs to which each sampling was chosen depending on the required data to investigate each research question. An identical concurrent mixed sampling was conducted when collecting document analysis were collected. On the other hand, a parallel sequential mixed sampling was conducted when collecting the teacher survey (Quan) and the school leaders’ questionnaire (Qual) (Table 1).

Table 1. Summary of Total Sampling of the Study
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Instruments:

The instruments were applied to collect data for the two domains: first domain included the instruments used to explore the policy and practice of teacher licensure at the international, regional, and local levels through content analysis. The second domain used instruments that investigated stakeholders’ perceptions through teachers’ survey and school leaders.

3.3 Data Analysis

Since the study methodology is a sequential exploratory mixed method, the data collection process took three phases:

  1. 1.

    The qualitative approach phase one to review and analyze T.L policy and practice

  2. 2.

    The quantitative approach phase two to investigating the teacher perception

  3. 3.

    The qualitative phase three explores school leaders’ perceptions

The study adopted inter-method mixing to collect data through more than two methods (Johnson and Christensen, 2014).

The qualitative data in the document's coding followed the inductive method. When themes or categories overlapped, the data overlapped naturally and presented the co-occurring codes (Johnson and Christensen, 2014). In case of a complete overlap, data were joined. In case of a partial overlap, the relationship was found. Therefore, the nominal codes were converted into numerical codes uploaded to the NVIVO Software. The study identified the relationship between the themes, such as initial licensure with students’ performance and orientation programme with teachers’ effectiveness.

Regarding the quantitative data: Collecting data from stakeholders’ experience gave a chance to undergo several uncertain factors such as diversity of schools’ culture, teacher background, master experience, and social persuasion on an individual. The teachers’ survey responses indicated frequency rated on a five-point Likert scale. Descriptive statistical analysis indicated the correlation between the demographic variables and the teachers’ perception of the T.L. programme. The study listed the scores in grouped frequency distribution through the SPSS programme.

4 Results

4.1 Thematic Analysis Findings

The study outlined nine main themes, which targeted countries that have enacted accordingly. The explored themes were as follows: (1) Description of the T.L. programme, (2) Stakeholders’ Participation, (3) Professional Development, (4) Licensure Requirement, (5) Initial Preparation, (6) Feedback System, (7) Teacher Licensure Effectiveness, (8) T.L Development, (9) School Climate and support. Based on the study's analysis of policies and exemplary practices, it was concluded that every country has a distinct history.

Six countries' policy documents emphasized the importance of professional programs to evaluate teacher quality. The porpuse of teaching licensing is to regulate and guarantee teacher competency, (Arias and Scafidi 2009). According to Ingvarson et al. (2013), most countries delegate the responsibility for accreditation to government agencies such as the USA, KSA, and Canada. At the same time, in other countries like Singapore, the teaching licensing procedure would be entirely controlled by the Ministry of Education.

Several countries have implemented programs to facilitate the passing of licensing exams. In Singapore, the Ministry of Education oversees NIE, which trains teachers and awards bachelor's degrees. Australia's HALT program aims to encourage collaboration and maintain high standards among experienced teachers.

Teaching license requirements vary by country. Finland requires a five-year master's degree and experienced teacher observation. Australia demands a portfolio of effective teaching practices. Gulf countries require a bachelor's degree. All must pass an exam, but accountability varies. Australia has a continuous assessment of quality and evaluation by the National Certifying Authority.

4.2 Teachers’ Perceptions of the Exam Effectiveness Findings

The study analyzed the descriptive data to answer research question 2: What are teachers’ perceptions of the KSA's teacher licensure programme? Moreover, the study focused on the impact of initial preparation and school leaders on teachers’ general scores. The following results were revealed (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5):

Table 2. Construct One Analysis
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Table 3. Construct Two Analysis
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Table 4. Construct Three Analysis
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Table 5. Construct Four Analysis
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Correlation Coefficients. A Pearson product-moment correlation in this section was conducted to examine the relationship between general exam results and initial teacher, in addition to school support to teachers before the exam. The results showed that the general score exam was weak and negatively related to initial preparation was r (300) = -.216, p < .001, and the correlation was significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The findings indicated that general initial preparation had a significant impact on teachers’ general exam scores. Also, the findings displayed that school support has a moderate and positive impact on the general score of teachers’ exams by r (300) = .055, p < .345, the correlation was insignificant.

Two-Sample Test. The study ensured several steps before conducting the two-sample t-test. The data in each group were random samples from the population, were normally distributed, and consisted of adequate sample size and almost equal variance in Std. Moreover, the dependent variables are continuous, and the independent variable was two level categories (male and female. The overall results indicated there were no significant differences (t (298) = −1.0, p = .08 > .05).

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) One Way ANOVA results displayed the mean score for 1–5 years of experience (M = 2.4659, SD = 1.12097), 6–10 years of experience (M = 2.3068, SD = 1.17629), 11–15 years of experience (M = 2.3153, SD = 1.20866), and more than 15 years (M = 2.4481, SD = 1.30440).

4.3 School Leaders and Policymakers’ Perceptions Findings

The principals ‘questionnaire was analysed by QSR NVivo 12 into four main themes then several codes were generated: (1) validate teachers’ findings, (2) the impact of orientation programme, (3) school support, (4) licensed teachers’ evaluation process. Findings showed that 60% of school leaders were uncertain about the reliability of teachers’ exam scores. Similarly, school leaders admitted that teachers did not receive more than emotional support or a day off to prepare for the exam. Although teachers disagree with the effectiveness of the licensing exams, leaders have noticed several changes in teachers’ practice such as improved communication with students, applying different learning styles, and developing more knowledge of theories and teaching strategies. According to the school leaders’ responses, they confirmed that experience increases teacher quality, which supported the earlier investigation of the teachers’ survey in stage two. As a standard method of evaluation, classroom observation and an evaluation form are utilized by most leaders. However, the lack of standardized methods was confirmed, which provoked the choice to use preferable procedures.

5 Conclusion

5.1 Integrated Findings

The first qualitative stage compared international and regional policies with the local licensure programme in Saudi Arabia. The comparison revealed best practices and successful experiences to propose a suggested framework. The document analysis ensured that teachers’ preparation and continuous development are essential to increase teacher quality. Referring to the literature review, teacher quality is hard to measure since teaching happens in a complex context. Accordingly, one measurement (licensing exam) would not reflect the quality. That was reflected in the study respondents’ frustration with the current licensing exam. On the other hand, countries such as Finland and Singapore proved teachers’ licensing success with intensive pre-service and in-service programmes. The study concluded that the shortage of long-life learning culture in public schools and the lack of school support were reflected through teachers’ surveys and school leaders’ questionnaires. In reference to the quantitative findings, 55% of participants demanded technology training and exchanging knowledge and experience with colleagues. While getting a mentor was the least required. Furthermore, participants revealed negative perceptions toward the difference between licensed and unlicensed teachers’ performance. In this respect, the latter perceptions reflected the debate over measuring teacher quality through licensing. Thus, the study findings showed that passing the exam was not evidence of increasing teacher quality.

5.2 Limitations

The researcher started the investigation in 2021 when most schools and teachers did not consider taking the exam seriously. The problem extended to limiting the number of participants in the survey. Moreover, the study planned for school leaders’ interviews, where the interviewer could ask probe questions and detailed information. However, the participants preferred to receive the questions online via a questionnaire, and the responses were limited to short answers except for a few.

5.3 Recommendations and Implications

Becoming a teacher requires more than just passing the licensure exam. Apart from this, having a university-level education and undergoing in-service training with experienced mentors and experts are also essential. Teachers expressed dissatisfaction with the exam and are seeking continuous support. The Ministry of Education can promote lifelong learning by conducting workshops and mentoring programs. The exam should serve as a measure of progress rather than a final verdict. Teachers should receive feedback on their performance and provide evidence of their best practices through portfolios and classroom observation reports (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.
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(Source: Author)

The Study recommended Licensing Programme

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5.4 Regional Implications

Implementing standardized teacher licensing in the Gulf region can ensure consistent education quality while still allowing for flexibility to accommodate each country's unique visions. By placing a strong emphasis on both theoretical and practical research in the education system and licensing process, we can help improve the skills and knowledge of teachers.