Keywords

Introduction

South Korea’s efforts to address climate change have been in full swing since 2009, when it launched a national policy for low-carbon green growth, leading to the declaration of carbon neutrality by 2050 in 2020, and the establishment and implementation of domestic policies and systems along with the proposal of national emission reduction targets (three in total, with the latest version submitted in 2021). Despite these efforts, actual results have been lacklustre, with the share of renewable energy in South Korea’s energy mix currently at 8.1% (as of 2022) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at 676.6 million tonnes (as of 2021) (Ministry of Environment, n.d.).

South Korea’s response to the climate crisis is characterized by its prioritization of green technologies (which can be substituted for climate technologies in the context of this article) as a key enabler to achieve its mitigation targets and its continued strengthening of investment and support for international development cooperation (ODA Korea, 2023).

South Korea’s situation can be understood as an appropriate environment to explore technology-oriented cooperation with Germany to combat climate change. Both countries have a proactive stance on climate change, have increased their investment in international development cooperation projects, and have capabilities as technological powerhouses, which could lead to meaningful synergies through mutual cooperation in addressing the climate crisis. In particular, technology is recognized as a tool that has the potential to solve 70% of the climate crisis response problem (United Nations, 2023).

Technical cooperation requires investment. In particular, exploring technical cooperation through a financial support framework such as the Green Climate Fund, which is a representative source of funding for technical cooperation in response to climate change, would be a stable form of cooperation.

Against this backdrop, this chapter sets the macro-objective of promoting technical cooperation to respond to the climate crisis in Korea and Germany, and draws implications for the planning and implementation of meaningful joint climate technical cooperation projects in the future through a comparative analysis of the technical assistance projects carried out by both countries under the UNFCCC.

Method and Results

The methods utilized in this chapter are as follows. First, we make a comparison of the basic national goals of the two countries to address climate change, the key contents of these goals, and their characteristics in the field of international cooperation. Second, we outline the history of the bilateral external activities to address climate change conducted by the two countries since the Paris Agreement in order to examine their willingness and methods to cooperate in addressing the climate crisis. Third, we examine and analyse the activities of the two countries in the technical and financial mechanisms of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and their participation in individual projects under each mechanism to highlight differences in approach, specification of major project areas, and key outcomes achieved by each country. In doing so, we sought implications for complementary areas or approaches for bilateral cooperation.

In terms of the national targets and related highlights of the two countries’ climate change response and international cooperation, Germany has, for decades, been proposing progressive emissions reduction targets in line with EU policies. Germany has set targets to reduce its emissions by 65% by 2030 and 88% by 2040 compared to 1990 levels, and to reach carbon neutrality by 2045, and is implementing a range of policies in line with these targets (Climate Action Tracker, 2023). South Korea has updated its nationally determined contribution (NDC) three times. The first NDC presented a 37% reduction target compared to business-as-usual (submitted in 2016), the second was a 28% reduction, with 2017 as the base year (submitted in 2020), and the update is aiming for a 40% reduction by 2018 (2021). To achieve this goal, the government is promoting a series of policies, including the enactment of the Basic Act on Carbon–neutral Green Growth (September 2021) and the establishment of the Basic Plan for Carbon–neutral Green Growth (March 2023). While both countries are similar in their urgency in setting targets and working towards reductions, there are differences in their approaches. In one of the most important areas, energy, South Korea is still heavily reliant on nuclear power and emphasizes going carbon free, while Germany’s response is to phase out nuclear power and increase the proportion of renewable energy (Maennel & Kim, 2018). In terms of collaboration, it is worth looking at international development cooperation as a representative activity, independent of its contribution to the national target. Germany is among the top three providers of grant equivalents for international development cooperation, alongside the US and the UK. Korea has been steadily increasing its contribution, growing from USD 1.75 billion in 2013 to USD 2.81 billion in 2022, a 60.6% growth rate.

Our review of cooperation cases between the two countries starts in 2019 (Table 9.1), when, in South Korea, national policies for climate action after the Paris Agreement were being revised (Ministry of Environment, Korea, 2023), and in Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel’s fourth term in office (November 2017–December 2021) had just begun. Each year, the two countries have strengthened cooperation in specific areas, including the signing of a joint declaration of intent for the establishment of an Energy Partnership to further strengthen and institutionalize the successful bilateral cooperation in the field of energy transition in 2019 and the roadmap that defines the framework for the future cooperation of the partnership in 2020, whereas both countries agreed to set up a high-level cooperation committee that meets at least once a year to discuss energy policy related issues as well as the means and results of cooperation.

Table 9.1 Bilateral cooperation between Germany and Korea related to climate crisis (since 2019)
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Between late 2021 and early 2022, the leadership of both countries changed: Olaf Scholz became the new Chancellor of Germany in 2021, and Yoon Suk-yeol took office as the new President of South Korea in 2022. The two leaders have met twice, first on the sidelines of the United Nations General Assembly in New York in September 2022 and then in Seoul in May 2023. During the second meeting, Korea expressed its intent to join the Climate Club, an initiative by Chancellor Scholz aimed at accelerating climate action and encouraging steeper mitigation targets.

The activities of the two countries in the technical and financial mechanisms under the UNFCCC were analysed by focusing on their business history (Table 9.2). In the case of Korea, the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) and the Technical Executive Committee (TEC), which constitute the technology mechanism, have consistently been chaired by senior officials from the ministry in charge of NDE (Ministry of Science and ICT) and experts from the ministry’s affiliated organizations, and Korea has the largest number of member organizations for technical assistance within the CTCN (99 out of 817). In addition, Korea has been successful in attracting a CTCN Coordinating Liaison Office in Korea to support enhanced cooperation with the GCF and strengthen technical cooperation in the Asia–Pacific region. (The agreement was signed in 2021, with the opening ceremony held in 2022.) Under this environment, three pro bono Technical Assistance (TA) projects supported by Korea have been regularized since 2022 in agreement with the CTCN. To date, Korea has participated in a total of 14 TA activities as a host and partner organization. The targets of the TA projects are divided by continent, with seven projects in Asia and six in Africa, and the same number of projects (six each) in mitigation and adaptation.

Table 9.2 Activity comparison of Germany and Korea in technology and financial mechanisms
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In the case of Germany, there are no examples of director activities in the CTCN, and private sector experts are active in the TEC. The total number of TA projects in Germany is small at four, but they range across Africa, Eastern Europe, Pacific Rim and the Caribbean, and capacity building efforts are observed through 14 publication activities.

Looking at the GCF projects that were hosted and active in Korea in 2013, Korea has two Accredited Entities and only one completed project, on energy efficiency in Indonesia. Germany has a total of two Accredited Entities (AEs) (as of November 2022), and a total of 10 projects have been implemented in various fields.

Conclusion and Discussion

Both countries are actively setting ambitious emission reduction targets and demonstrating urgency in tackling climate change, but Germany has consistently proposed stronger targets in line with EU policies, aiming for more significant reductions by 2030 and 2040 compared to South Korea. And Germany aims for complete reliance on renewable energy and has phased out nuclear power, while South Korea still heavily relies on nuclear power and focuses on achieving carbon neutrality, maintaining its nuclear programme. This difference shows contrasting policy stances on the role of nuclear energy in climate mitigation. In spite of the difference in key areas such as renewable energy and international cooperation. Germany’s strong targets and leadership in international support are noteworthy, while South Korea’s increasing ambition and potential to expand its international role deserve attention. By comparing and learning from each other, both countries can further refine their strategies and make more significant contributions to global climate action.

Reflecting on bilateral cooperation events in addressing climate crises jointly, two important implications can be extracted. First, we see strengthened bilateral cooperation. Joint research efforts in renewable energy, carbon capture and storage, offshore wind development, hydrogen, energy efficiency, and smart grids are tangible examples of progress. Furthermore, annual cooperation and hosting and collaborating on major climate events such as the G20 Climate Sustainability Working Group and the Clean Energy Ministerial demonstrate their ongoing commitment.

Secondly, the leadership in multilateral governance is underlined. By co-hosting events and showcasing successful bilateral cooperation, they suggest both countries see themselves as global leaders in climate action. By demonstrating successful bilateral cooperation, they may encourage other countries to follow suit. Especially, spearhead climate action demonstrates both global responsibility and a positive national image in multilateral relations.

However, there are some challenges and opportunities. Since the change in leadership, both countries have not engaged in significant collaboration at the national level, jeopardizing past joint achievements. This lack of collaboration highlights the importance of continued collaboration. A key challenge is in maintaining political will; changes in government leadership could impact priorities and commitment to cooperation. Balancing national interests with joint climate goals can be challenging, and require ongoing compromise. To expand collaboration further, scaling up successful projects and exploring new avenues of cooperation can further accelerate progress for both countries.

Considering the project-focused activities of Korea and Germany in UNFCCC, both exhibit distinctive roles in supporting the UNFCCC’s Technology and Financial Mechanisms. Korea leans towards the technical assistance side. It actively participates in the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) and Technical Executive Committee (TEC), evidenced by numerous projects and targets in the CTCN’s programme. Its efforts attract organizations from both mechanisms and it promotes Korean-style pro bono projects. Germany however prioritizes financial support. It plays a leading role in the Green Climate Fund (GCF), boasting a significantly higher number and wider variety of funded projects compared to Korea. Pertaining to collaboration opportunities, while both countries demonstrate strong commitment to national mitigation targets and international cooperation, optimizing their partnership could yield greater benefits. Korea can, for example, partner with German implementers, enabling Korea to leverage German expertise and thereby maximize gains from technical assistance projects. Of course, Germany can engage in Korean-supported GCF projects, which would enhance its involvement in projects aligned with Korea’s priorities. As an essential issue, linking the CTCN/TEC and GCF to facilitate integrated mitigation and adaptation projects remains challenging due to differing perspectives. Developing countries prioritize needs-driven, large-scale investment support, while developed countries favour a more nuanced, demand-driven approach.

Korea and Germany’s active involvement in both mechanisms positions them as potential catalysts for a more synergistic approach, stressing Korea’s strengths, such as infrastructure-focused approach and rapid decision-making culture, and utilizing Germany’s strengths, such as demand-driven process and multifaceted cooperation activities. Generally, by combining their strengths, Korea and Germany can bridge the gap between developing and developed countries’ perspectives. A more integrated approach could create a positive feedback loop, whereby developing countries’ needs drive larger-scale investment support from the GCF. And Korea and Germany’s leadership can pave the way for a more effective and impactful global response to climate change.

The higher consumption of carbon-intensive power generation and production in Southeast Asia compared to the Western nations highlights the need for collaboration between Korea and Germany. This collaboration could establish an enabling framework for cooperation and serve as a model for other countries. Through joint projects utilizing the Technology and Financial Mechanism, Korea could leverage German expertise to strengthen its capabilities in developing sustainable and high-quality clean energy solutions. In turn, Germany can leverage Korea’s well-established networks in Southeast Asia to expand its reach in promoting sustainable practices. This collaboration will undoubtedly contribute to motivating other countries to join the fight against climate change.