Logical Thinking/Creative Thinking

Abstract

In this chapter, creativity will be examined and structured from the perspective of transaction. Just as in the previous chapters, the enhancement of the creative thinking process and activity will be studied by applying the methodology of managing transaction costs. It is obvious that the methodology of integration of modules based on interfaces also has significant value in creativity, which is widely conceived as integration of knowledge. In addition, the development and enhancement of individual creative thinking will be analyzed from a perspective that it is also conceived as diversified communication within an individual’s intellectual activity.

In both organizational and individual thinking processes, transaction costs impede information transfer.

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

9.1 What Is Creativity?

Fixed interfaces can be extracted even from activities with high novelty—that is, with high diversity and complexity—in order to improve efficiency and effectiveness.

In this chapter, creativity will be examined and structured from the perspective of transaction. Just as in the previous chapters, the enhancement of the creative thinking process and activity will be studied by applying the methodology of managing transaction costs. It is obvious that the methodology of integration of modules based on interfaces also has significant value in creativity, which is widely conceived as integration of knowledge. In addition, the development and enhancement of individual creative thinking will be analyzed from a perspective that it is also conceived as diversified communication within an individual’s intellectual activity.

There are also various definitions of creativity, among which the following are widely accepted:

• (1) Novelty

• (2) Usefulness or effectiveness

• (3) Business applicability and feasibility

Novelty is obviously the minimal condition of creativity, and some people argue that novelty is the only condition to define creativity. If so, however, it implies that eccentricity-driven ideas and being bizarre are good enough to be considered as creative. This criterion is not appropriate in terms of social responsibility and business management. On the other hand, the claim that any idea is valueless without business applicability and feasibility is indispensable, but it is too general as long as discussions are in the field of business management and is not limited to creativity. Thus, it should be excluded from the discussion. That is, the meaningful discussion in this context is how to enhance both novelty and usefulness or effectiveness with high efficiency.

Regarding novelty, promotions of new challenges, avoidance of negative attitudes, and elimination of thinking restrictions that leads to new challenges are necessary in production and transaction. These will be realized through setting shared values, behavioral principles, and supporting systems, such as evaluation and rewarding, as interfaces.

As for usefulness or effectiveness, the methodology of this book, which, by fixing interfaces of redundant and repetitive activities with little or no value, reduces transaction costs and improves efficiency and consequently effectiveness, is adhered to. It is impossible to objectively evaluate effectiveness; it is impossible to evaluate effectiveness of information because the information that is regarded as valueless for increase of sales in a short term may contribute to enhancement of customer loyalty and consequent increase of sales in the future.

Basic R&D that requires the most creativity in companies is a typical example. Honorary Dr. Koichi Tanaka was inspired by his failure in an experiment to obtain the basic idea that resulted in his winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Likewise, it is difficult to decide what leads to innovation. However, this generates an atmosphere that justifies unmanaged and unrestricted research activities, causing confusion, disorder, and indolence in the basic research organizations.

Even in activities with high novelty, repetitive activities with relatively low novelty and low value exist. The attitude, discipline, capability, and rules to pursue fixed interfaces, which improve efficiency without deteriorating effectiveness, are indispensable. When repetitive activities are eliminated and excess time is obtained, the volume of not only effective but also novel activities increases. That is, the management of transaction costs also enhances creative thinking with high novelty and effectiveness.

Many argue that only effectiveness is important in the discussion of productivity improvement of creativity, ignoring efficiency. In such arguments, the tendency of considering only revolutionary products and breakthrough technologies which are almost worthy of the Nobel Prize can be observed. However, the proposition that it is impossible to objectively evaluate effectiveness becomes more significant here. The possibility of hitting a home run intentionally is extremely low, and it can result in an attitude that commonly denies the value of a series of single hits. Rather, the sufficient and abundant capability of repeating single hits or small innovations will create doubles and triples. In reality, such arguments are frequently excused for justifying one’s own laziness and incapability by asserting the significance of home-run-type innovations, which almost never arise.

As previously described in the discussion regarding the meetings, formal decisions made in R&D meetings frequently remain unexecuted. Decisions that are not operational but innovative, requiring changes and challenges, are even more likely to be neglected. Even a small innovation will never be achieved without immediate confirmation of commitments, explicit description of the responsibilities and schedules, and monitoring of the progresses. The accumulation of such small efforts leads to creativity.

In this procedure, the methodology in which repetitive and redundant activities with no or little value are extracted and eliminated should be emphasized. However, it is obviously much more difficult than the application in ordinary operations, as diversity and complexity increase by far in activities with higher novelty. Hereinafter, the subject moves to the main issue of this chapter, which is the reduction of transaction costs in the activities with strong diversity and complexity, assuming that the novelty in creativity differs only in diversity and complexity from ordinary activities.¹

As aforementioned, the methodologies of reducing transaction costs proposed in this book already possess the characteristics of enhancing the effectiveness and novelty in activities, a result of which enhances creativity. In this chapter, the discussions will be summarized from a perspective of creativity.

The methodologies to process activities with diversity and complexity will be discussed from two aspects: interindividual (Sect. 9.2) and intraindividual (Sect. 9.3). Intraindividual issues will be positioned as derivatives of the interindividual issues.

9.2 Interindividual Transactions of Information

Fixing interfaces increases the efficiency and effectiveness of transactions of information as well.

9.2.1 Knowledge Management as Transactions

The foundation of knowledge management is the elimination of repetitive and redundant waste.

Knowledge management aims at increases in the efficiency and effectiveness of interindividual transfer of information, dealing with transfer and exchange of information. As transfer of information corresponds to exchange, the methodology of managing transactions can be directly applied, which is, in this context, composed of “increase of efficiency by fixing interfaces (e.g., database and network) of information exchanges with high commonality and repetitiveness, but with little or no value” and “increase of effectiveness by utilizing obtained surplus resources (e.g., time and human resources) to create effective information.” Some assume that “information sharing” is distinguished from information exchange. However, “information sharing” is just another term of information exchange; for example, information sharing in meetings and through media such as databases should be simply deemed as derivative forms of information exchange, namely, transactions.

One of the largest causes that obstruct improvements of efficiency of interindividual information exchange is the belief that efficiency obstructs effectiveness. Based on such an idea, inefficient activities or laziness are disregarded. The common notion that efficiency management of discussion restricts free and creative thinking and leads to lower possibility of valuable idea creation is often based on the misunderstanding (or sophism) and laziness (in addition to inappropriate management).

Another typical misunderstanding (or sophism) is that more creative and effective ideas will be generated through less restricted communication. In other words, this means that all kinds of management should be abandoned or denied, asserting that freewheeling communication without any control will exchange implicit knowledge and ideas that lead to creativity. This idea is especially observed in Japanese companies, and one may argue that it is an established vested right of researchers, which makes the basic research activity and all kinds of meetings in Japanese companies chaotic. However, according to our research results as described in Chap. 8, the effectiveness improvements caused by the efficiency improvements are verified, while effectiveness improvement caused by disregarding efficiency has never been observed. For reconfirmation, no interfaces should be fixed but for the ones with little or no value.

In the first place, the diversity of information exchanged in day-to-day operations is not as wide as self judged, but rather quite limited. This misunderstanding is also caused by the same cause as the denial of fixing interfaces in which people perceive themselves as special. In ordinary conditions of businesses, it is impossible to deal with all issues, from the arts to politics, stem cells, tea ceremonies, and boxing training. In the ordinary creative communication of businesses, the variety of information is very limited. Our observation of more than 100 meetings in R&D departments showed that all their communication exhibited limited patterns. Sometimes it is very significant to encourage freewheeling discussions with a larger scope of information to create new ideas, such as brainstorming sessions. However, except for such special occasions, most of the portions could be or should be managed and controlled by introducing fixed interfaces. Divergent thinking should be artificially and systematically controlled even in brainstorming sessions that are currently haphazard and improvisational. Without management, they would become just idle conversation or breaks. When these are merged and confused with decision making, the objectives will never be accomplished.

The predetermined sequence of basic management of communication, which is description of status, extraction of structural problems, listing of solution options, listing and selecting evaluation axis, and selection and prioritization of actions, is the minimum requirement. However, it is rarely met. Although “autonomy and self-initiative should be emphasized for creativity,” there are many communications that should be and can be controlled, and the management capabilities are developed and enhanced through the practice. Lack of comprehension regarding the management of information (in addition, a strong belief in implicit knowledge for Japan) is an underlying cause, which leaves chaos, laziness, vested interest, and vicious habit disregarded and untreated.

This does not rob the significance of socialization activities in companies—that is, free communication aiming at trust formation, deep mutual understanding, and collaboration-oriented corporate culture. Most of the innovative global companies with high efficiency are likely to separate and promote opportunities for free communication, such as Friday evening beer parties or birthday parties. At brown bag lunch seminars, individuals make presentations introducing their activities and ideas and discuss freely to enhance mutual understanding. Some Japanese companies equipped Japanese tatami-mat rooms for discussions in a relaxing atmosphere. Isolation from day-to-day operation consequently improves effectiveness and creativity.

The attitude of eliminating inefficiency without deteriorating effectiveness is always significant, even in the cases where high diversity and complexity are concerned.

9.2.2 Introduction of Frameworks in Information Transfer and Discussion: Extraction of Commonalities

There are infinite opportunities of efficiency improvement in information transfer without deteriorating effectiveness.

The methodologies to improve efficiency of free discussion without deteriorating effectiveness and creativity in practice will be examined here, which were extracted during our research.

For example, using common frameworks such as “introduction, body, and conclusion,” and “background, purpose, facts, and conclusion” are types of efficient communication that never compromise the effectiveness of the information. Distinguishing “facts and opinions” is a must in any kind of report. Sharing such frameworks improves communication and, as a consequence, transactions such as order and information exchange are executed effectively without errors. This is a typical example of increasing effectiveness by increasing efficiency from adopting adequate frameworks.

A sales meeting at a certain company, where our research team investigated, obtained great improvement of efficiency by simply introducing the BSC framework. They utilized the four dimensions of the framework with some modification: “sales,” “customer satisfaction,” “information sharing,” and “human resource development” during their regular reporting of each activity at sales meetings. Presentations and discussions in the meetings, which were chaotic before, became greatly organized and efficient. At the same time, effectiveness increased from the increased time for valuable information exchanges. Such a framework functions as an interface to organize the flow of information and the order of discussions and improve the efficiency of the transactions.

As this example shows, the extraction and fixing of the patterns from information exchanges that appear repetitively and making them into frameworks do not regulate or restrict the information itself but fix only the transaction interfaces. The following advantages are expected:

• It eliminates misunderstandings in information exchanges.

• It reduces the time of information exchanges.

• It embodies easier and more effective decision makings.

• It increases the output by proper and agile processing.

• It increases the speed of the thinking process when accustomed to the fixed frameworks.

Although frameworking or fixing of thinking processes may lead to rigidification of thinking if it is not designed or managed properly (as a framework is one kind of interface, it has the identical disadvantages), it certainly increases the effectiveness if it is designed and managed such that:

• It enables shifting of resources (time and staff) spent to more valuable thinking processes.

• It eliminates the possibility of slipping or neglecting important issues.

• It assures the minimum quality of outputs.

The following is a partial list of frameworks that smooth the flow of information as transaction interfaces, including the aforementioned for reconfirmation:

• (1) Filing index and directory

  Filing indexes and directories, as explained in Chap. 2, are also illustrative framework examples that organize and restrict the flows of information for efficient transactions.

• (2) Database (e.g., CRM, SCM, ERP, PDM)

  Databases are for accumulating and sharing information, and the input and output should comply with frameworks restricted by rules in order to do so. The frameworks of classifying information should be designed properly. If not, the operation becomes unfriendly and inefficient, which will hinder regular usage by users. In addition, if the understanding of frameworks is not shared among users, those will not function as platforms of communication. For example, a customer information database will contribute greatly if the possibility of a customer’s order is shared between sales and production departments; however, a salesperson may input the possibility data of “more than 90 %” subjectively and optimistically, despite the fact that the reality is “less than 50 %.” Thus, it is necessary to make detail regulations that specify each condition for higher accuracy of the information exchange.

• (3) Meeting

  Meetings are typical occasions for information transactions within companies. Missions, goals, meeting types (decision making, execution management, brainstorming, education, and so forth), agendas, and frameworks of discussion become important interfaces for convergence of each thought, expectation, and direction for collaboration and increase of the outcomes. Basic meeting rules (e.g., being punctual; reading materials before the meetings; making sure to confirm the agreements, tasks, schedule, and each responsibility) function as interfaces in all meetings universally. None of these rules obstruct effectiveness. Although it is commonly understood that an organization should be artificially designed, it is unreasonable that meetings are seldom designed or planned, in the sense that meetings are also information-processing devices, like organizations. This fact leads to huge opportunities for improvement. The ratio of meetings in total activity time is extremely large. The universal rules above can be applied to all meetings, and the design of frameworks at each meeting, such as missions, goals, and types of discussion frameworks, does not consume much time. The more the staffs become accustomed to it, the less time it consumes. It should be deemed as serious as corporate culture or employee discipline. The management of meetings is likely to depend on the managers in charge, rather than the institution and the organizations; the managers who organize meetings strictly with deep comprehension of the significance tend to show much greater performances.

• (4) Sales reporting form

  This may be one of the most popular frameworks in information transfer. The great improvement of the efficiency is easily conceived. The common problem is that the accumulated information is not fully utilized or analyzed, so it does not contribute to the effectiveness. This is an illustrative example that no value is created without the information-processing capability, namely, logical thinking, despite the fact that the volume of information is increased efficiently.

• (5) PMBOK

  Project management methodology is applied to various kinds of projects, such as plant construction and software developments. A very complicated flow of information is processed, but the basic pattern of the information flow is quite universal there. The managing methodology from extracted common patterns in the communication is the PMBOK. Its main purpose is to regulate, economize, and secure the information flows for more accurate controls of resources, schedules, and quality. It regulates the flow of information regarding the project management to increase the efficiency of information exchanges, as described in this chapter. If the regulation is strictly applied, the deployment of IT becomes possible, which increases the improvement further.

  PMBOK only assists in the execution of the project management plans or the interfaces that are already determined. Therefore, its contribution to the improvement of effectiveness is limited except for avoiding the collapse of the project, which contributes to an improvement of effectiveness.

• (6) Pro Forma (business action plan)

  In R&D and product development activities, potential market size, penetration, planned market share, planned revenue, expected costs, and expected profits are designated to prescribe in the form of the pro forma framework. If necessary, these items are further decomposed and analyzed more precisely to manage the projects. In addition to the improvement of communication between the project owner and the project manager, it encourages the attitude of each project members toward the business profitability. This framework is for enhancing effectiveness, not deteriorating, by establishing the performance measures, which are likely to be neglected by researchers.

• (7) KPI

  KPI embodies the accurate and efficient managerial communication regarding activity direction and targets, as well as quantified progresses and outcomes. Activity targets such as the time to respond to customer claims, the number of meetings with customer decision makers, the time spent for educating staff, and so forth are designated and reported.

• (8) Business modeling tool

  Modeling methodologies to describe business workflows in a unified manner, which are useful for designing IT systems or merging tasks at M&As, are gaining popularity (e.g., DEMO², UML³, and IDEF⁴). Although the real situation is too complicated to be described completely, the efficiency in understanding the flow with flowcharts is greater, compared to those explained in words. Such tools are utilized for both external and internal communication to visualize and explain the tasks.

• (9) Protocol

  We can enjoy e-mails and the Web because all the data are created, transferred, and exchanged under various protocols including TCP/IP, HTML, and SMTP. The term protocol originates from diplomatic protocol but recently is used to mean work processes and manuals, all of which function as interfaces. In the first place, connection corresponds to compliance with protocols or interfaces. We may think that we are communicating completely freely, but we consciously and unconsciously are complying with many restrictions and constraints, such as languages, laws, customs, cultures, common sense, and manners. Just a few additions of interfaces will not cause a large difference, leaving no need to be so nervous.

• (10) Open source

  Thousands of open source software development projects are developed by programmers from all over the world who have never met each other in person. Such projects are possible because of the rigid infrastructures on which thousands of programmers can collaborate without confusion. The target of the infrastructures focuses directly on the efficiency, but it is obvious that it increases the effectiveness as well.

• (11) Object-oriented software development

  As the reproduction costs of software are close to zero, the reuse of programs increases the efficiency easily. When enhancing the advantage, it is necessary to develop programs complying with the interfaces so that other programmers can understand and reuse them to integrate into their works in process with minimum costs and effort. It also assists the original developer of the program when he/she reuses it in the future. The module of program is called an “object.” In software development, where the competition is becoming intensified, precise management of objects becomes important. Some argue that the compliance with interfaces may deteriorate the effectiveness. In the case of software development, however, the increase of processing capabilities by technological innovation of semiconductors is overcoming such disadvantage. Given the restriction of the compliance, programmers are expected to enhance their development skills to utilize objects without deteriorating the performance. The technologies to design the interfaces that do not deteriorate the performance and the architects who possess such capabilities also become significant, as previously described. Incidentally, the interfaces of programs are applied not only to the interindividual development activities but also to the intraindividual ones (individual development processes), and this perspective is also going to be a key factor when dealing with efficiency in intraindividual thinking processes in the next section.

It is necessary to design specific frameworks for each case ad hoc in addition to utilizing these general frameworks. The deployment of interfaces is indispensable for the assurance of minimum quality, efficiency, and agility. In order to increase them, it is necessary to improve the quality of the design.

9.2.3 Practical Examples in Discussions

There are an infinite number of frameworks that organize discussion and improve efficiency and at the same time effectiveness. It is necessary to utilize them.

In discussions, managing transactions of information by decomposing into simple contents and determining the constructive order is valuable for avoiding redundant and repetitive exchanges of information (i.e., the efficiency issues) and the neglect of important subjects (i.e., the effective issues). In addition, due to lack of shared understanding of contexts and assumptions, even the same assertions frequently collide without being able to distinguish agreeable points. As a result, personal attacks and avoidance of argument occur. Frameworks contribute to structure and designate the contexts of discussion.

Some argue that the decomposing destructs a holistic perspective. In that case, however, a framework to decompose the issue into the whole and the parts will help with strengthening the holistic perspective. There are infinite numbers of well-known frameworks; those that frequently appear are described below, although it is also important to design specific frameworks appropriate to each issue by yourself.

• (1) Understanding the problem → extraction of possible solutions → listing of evaluation axes → selection and weighting of axes → shaping solution plan

  Without the comprehension of this flow, the discussion is likely to become redundant and repetitive, resulting in wasted time and costs. This is commonly observed in companies with lower performance.

• (2) Hypothesis setting → collecting facts for the verification → discussion based on the verified assumption

  Just like distinguishing between facts and opinions, discussion of problem solving without distinguishing between hypotheses and verified facts easily becomes inefficient and emotionally confusing. By using this framework, the following can be understood when establishing shared acknowledgment of a problem (1) the acknowledgement of a problem is only a hypothesis, (2) it should be verified by facts (data in particular), and (3) new hypotheses should be openly accepted because verified facts may be denied by newly found facts in arguments.

• (3) 3C

  This framework of three axes—customer, company, and competitor—is widely utilized when discussing strategy from the perspectives of players. This assists engineers who forget their customers and competitors as well as marketers who neglect their own company’s situation to properly widen their scope of perspectives.

• (4) SWOT

  This framework is also widely used for analyses of businesses, products, and technologies by four axes: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. If the strengths and threats are discussed at the same time, members with fundamentally the same strategies may feel as if they have significant differences in opinions once the real problem is simplified by the order of the discussion.

• (5) QCD

  Decomposing discussion subjects by means of the quality, cost, and delivery framework would help to organize discussion on product development, procurement, and so forth.

• (6) AIDMA

  This is a classical framework for marketing promotion issues, in which customer purchasing activity is decomposed into five processes: attention, interest, desire, memory, and action.

• (7) Work process

  Decomposing activities into processes such as AIDMA increases the efficiency of communication. For example, discussion on sales activity becomes more efficient by subcategorizing it into processes of listing of prospects, making appointments, making first contacts, making presentations, gaining access to decision makers, negotiation, delivery, follow-up, and complaints handling.

• (8) Customer segmentation

  Issues regarding customers should be discussed by decomposing them into segments based on demography, key buying factors, and company efficiency. The appropriateness of the segmentation will make large differences in efficiency and effectiveness.

• (9) Tree structure

  Issues are structured and decomposed into tree-shaped hierarchy to illustrate the relationship of the issues and to enhance the independence of each issue. It becomes easier to organize the discussion in order of priority and sequence. It is significant to decompose it without overlaps or slips.

There are infinite numbers of such frameworks. There also exist numerous opportunities, where efficiency and effectiveness will be greatly improved by applying such frameworks appropriately in chaotic discussions.

9.2.4 The Significant Role of Facilitators in Meetings

Facilitators’ strategic role in meetings increases its significance.

It is not easy for everyone to stand up in a chaotic meeting and propose a framework to organize the discussion in some cultures, such as Japan. Such action can be hated for being self-assertive and some may hesitate from the fear of proposing a wrong framework resulting in further confusion. Facing this kind of situation, leading global companies like high-tech companies in Silicon Valley started designating facilitators besides chairpersons. The facilitators standing on a neutral position are responsible for organizing discussions by structuring them; vitalizing discussions through excluding emotions and egoism; balancing, controlling, and promoting the remarks; and explicitly confirming the consensus, tasks, and schedules. Incidentally, many companies also assign timekeepers separately for strict time management.

The reason that chairpersons do not play the role of the facilitator is, first, to make the facilitator focus on the hard role; second, to make the participants recognize the significance of the independently designated role; and last and most importantly, to give opportunities to train the structuring capability to as many members as possible. As described repeatedly in this book, the structuring capability and technology can only be realized through the proper designing of fixed interfaces on the interface/module structure and the modularization of product and organization. If the structuring is improper, organizations and modules result in zero or negative value. The development of such skills is, however, extremely difficult. The facilitation in meetings provides perfect opportunities for the training. It is highly valuable to assign the facilitator role to all members, executives in particular, by rotation in order to develop their structuring skills.

9.3 Intraindividual Transactions of Information (Thinking Methodology)

Thinking is activated by reducing transaction costs between the past and the future.

9.3.1 Information-Processing Structure in the Thinking Process

Transaction structures of information in organizations and in individual thinking process are identical.

The largest difference between organizational (interindividual) activity and individual (intraindividual) activity is whether transactions occur or not. The well-known definition of a transaction cost by Steven Cheung, “all the costs which do not exist in a Robinson Crusoe economy,” implies that no transaction costs exist if there is no transaction partner.

However, as long as information processing is concerned, it is not true that there arise no transaction costs in the thinking process. If so, intraindividual information processing would not include any transaction cost, implying it is perfectly frictionless to acquire any necessary information during processing or thinking. In reality, however, human memory functions so poorly that the past data are seldom utilized. The data stored in the brain as memories are usually limited, and the rest are converted and archived in external memories such as notes, files, and personal databases. In particular, the spread of smartphones and cloud computing technology promoted the popularity of personal knowledge management systems by cloud computing,⁵ which enables users to easily access their own knowledge data from anywhere in the world with network access. The dependency on the networked external memories is increasing at a high speed, replacing the human brain.

Personal data archiving corresponds to the transactions between the self in the past, the self in the present, and the self in the future, which also incur transaction costs. The reduction of the transaction costs enhances intraindividual transmission of information and effectiveness including creativity, the consequence of which improves the capability of intraindividual information processing.

The subsequent question is how intraindividual transaction costs are reduced.

There is no reason not to apply the interindividual methodologies to the intraindividual transactions of information, which are actually identical. That is, if the information is recorded and archived so that it is clear to others, it will be efficiently delivered to oneself in the future. Examples include databases and filings. There are no significant differences in function and efficiency between interindividual and intraindividual usages.

Nowadays, when IT is ubiquitous, the technology of knowledge management contributes to not only organizations. All members of organizations access databases through network to utilize the accumulated data for organizational and individual usage. Usage does not distinguish between interindividual and intraindividual purposes. In this manner, all the methodologies for organizational or interindividual reduction of transaction costs and enhancement of communication are applicable to intraindividual or personal usage. The usage frequency of interfaces is higher with interindividual communication, resulting in higher ROI, but intraindividual investment will also gain enough ROI as the personal design capability improves to decrease the design cost and increase the quality. The repetitive challenges to design the value-added interfaces would contribute to enhancing the capability.

It was described in previous section that the establishment of interfaces enhances effectiveness of interindividual communication drastically. On such occasions, it is clear that the commonalities in interindividual and intraindividual processing of information increase the usage frequency and the ROI.

The only difference between the interindividual and intraindividual methodologies is as follows:

• (1) As transaction costs in intraindividual communication are lower, the reduction effect is less visible. The mutual understanding between a sender and a receiver who is the same as the sender (i.e., intraindividual) is stronger. If there remain data in brain memory, it does not incur transaction costs.

• (2) While there is a manager who advises or orders the usage of interindividual interfaces, intraindividual interfaces depend solely upon personal free will. If an individual is indulgent, the introduction and management are more difficult.

• (3) As intraindividual information processing is a personal competitiveness factor, it is more difficult to share the technologies.

• (4) Interindividual information sharing has been rapidly enhanced, which could be applied to intraindividual information sharing. For example, Wikipedia covers a great range of information, and all types of information and know-how can be obtained from one of many Q&A Web sites promptly and free of charge. As information accumulated by individuals has been more and more open to the public, the incentives to start an individual archive are decreasing.

Therefore, the establishment of intraindividual interfaces has been becoming more difficult. However, in this very situation, there lies a high possibility that the disparity between individuals’ capabilities is widened. One group of people continues to develop their information-processing capability with discipline by opening their thoughts, accumulating data, and sharing information with the public. The other group totally depends on the information from the previous group without their own efforts. The polarization seems to have emerged already.

While the latter group cannot understand the behaviors and motivation of the former group who disclose valuable information to the public, the open information policy has obtained popularity among the intellectual elite. The active distribution of valuable information creates communication opportunities with a huge number of receivers, a result of which makes all information concentrate on the sender, providing him/her with great opportunities to process, analyze, and organize the enormous volume of information. The design capabilities of interfaces are required, and the opportunity to develop it is given. The geniuses called architects must have obtained their astonishing capabilities because they have been through such processes from the young age. We should look at the fact that the opportunities to grow capabilities have been concentrated on a limited number of people. And the benefit from the transaction cost reduction correlates to the information-processing capability.

9.3.2 Methodology to Enhance Capabilities in the Thinking Process

Creativity is embodied by the division and interconnection of knowledge modules.

Knowledge management and creation in the intraindividual thinking process is achieved through infinite repetition of the division and interconnection which were described in Chap. 4. Knowledge and information is divided into modules by various axes, and, through various integrations of the modules, creativity or novel knowledge and information are born. The widely accepted definition of creativity designates that it is not the creation of entirely novel information from scratch but the new integration of pieces (modules) of information. It is clearly much more efficient to search and reuse former and others’ outcomes.

The question is what the methodology to design such interfaces of intraindividual information transmission is. When considering this, the following issues are significant:

• (1) High accessibility to valuable information using frameworks: Assuming that one’s own self in the future accesses the information for the first time (meaning one would have forgotten everything), objective and easy accessibility should be provided when archiving information. All the frameworks introduced in the previous section such as 3C and QCD are effective for the archiving.

• (2) High accessibility to valuable information using identification information: A search function is indispensable for efficient and prompt access to the information. And at the same time, tagging systems that have become popular for identification such as date, time, name, category, process are useful; designing a frequently used tagging system is required. The standardization of such system is usually established for organizational databases, but it is also significant with personal databases. Personal knowledge management will advance greatly if a tagging system that creates value over time is successfully designed.

• (3) Utilizing appropriate management tools: Use management tools that can be used whenever, wherever, and even in the future. Especially, as for cloud computing databases that can be accessed over a long period of time, the usage frequency increases, resulting in higher ROI.

Some may argue that such effort and cost are meaningless and that that cost should be spent for creation activity itself. However, the cost will decrease drastically due to acquirement of the expertise after repetitive challenges.

This kind of objection is likely to seen in village community-type organizations described in Chap. 6, as the background has the same root as the psychology of community. Implicitly oriented attitudes in village community-type organizations, based on their homogeneity and exclusiveness, deprives their members of opportunities to develop, which leads to many failures of interface functions and consequently ends up with the total denial. In addition, the absence of management on fixing interfaces by the leaders would make it worse.

These are crucial obstacles toward knowledge management and creative thinking, which requires processing of complex and vast volume of information in efficient and effective ways. Without the opportunities to develop capabilities of interface designing, knowledge management is strongly restricted. It should also be emphasized that this is a serious problem concerning one’s competitiveness development perspective.