Introduction

Pak ngaok hu Yang, pak ala hu Bimong

[In heaven are Gods, on the earth are temples]

This Cham idiom illustrates the vital position of temples as the most sacred places on earth for the Cham. If the gods hold the highest position in heaven, then on earth, temples secure the highest respect as they are the soul and the sacred symbols of the Cham community. Temples are the Yang’s home on the earth, from where they reign and protect human beings.

Po Klaong Girai temple was named after the famous Cham King Po Klaong Girai. This temple holds a prominent position in the Cham community because of its unique architectural characteristics and its place in the historiography of South Central Vietnam. It is also one of the best-known Cham temples in Vietnam today since it is still closely connected to the Cham people through religious activities and cultural practices. The temple is a “living sacred site” because Cham people frequently visit the place and perform sacred rituals there. In this chapter, I explore the role of the Po Klaong Girai temple in the life of Cham people today. I investigate contemporary Cham views about the Po Klaong Girai temple, specifically concerning how it is used as a symbol for many cultural activities and everyday life events by the Cham community. A significant part of this chapter is devoted to the examination of how the Katé festival, as a living heritage performance, has become the most significant moment for many members of Cham communities to demonstrate their cultural identity and pride in their cultural heritage. I argue that inappropriate conservation and development that conflicts with Cham cultural values are likely to be rejected by the Cham community because this sacred living site is where the Cham maintain their spirituality, culture, and identity.

Contemporary Cham Views About the Po Klaong Girai Temple

King Po Klaong Girai holds a central place in the heart of the Cham people. He is considered a great king whose merits and contributions to Cham history and culture are worthy of recognition. The king has been worshipped in the Po Klaong Girai temple for generations, although no one knows precisely when this practice started. To shed light on the place of the Po Klaong Girai in Cham heritage, I explore contemporary Cham thoughts about the Po Klaong Girai temple through a review of informal dialogues and conversations I held with Cham religious leaders, elders, intellectuals, women, and youth. Those most closely connected with the Po Klaong Girai temple are the Ahier religious priests such as Basaih, Kadhar, Muk Pajuw, and Ong Camânay. They are not only in charge of preparing and performing the religious ceremonies but also help to ensure the temple is upkept and protected. The temple is closely associated with their lives, especially from the first days after which they inherit the position of religious dignitaries:

When I was young, I often followed my Dad to the temple to worship. At that time, I did not know anything; I just knew that after rituals, there would be much food. Later, when I succeeded in my father’s religious position, I would often go to the temple and act as the religious leader there. Who would have thought I would become the head of religion and administration at this temple! Po Klaong Girai temple has been attached to me since childhood and will continue to be even when I die. (Orang-Gu005)

Other religious dignitaries have also witnessed numerous changes at the temple over the decades:

My life from childhood has been firmly attached to the temple. The temple is a part of my heart. I am a Basaih priest, so I often go up there so that I can easily recognise the transformation of the temple. I can see which bricks fall or which new bricks are inserted in the body of the temple. The temple is very sacred and has status because it is the place for the Gods - Yang and the Kings of the Cham. For religious dignitaries, the temple is even more sacred. In the past, nobody was allowed to come here. Only priests were allowed here. The rituals must have four bangsa (dignitaries) including Basaih, On Camânay, On Kadhar and Muk Pajuw. Without one of them, the door of the temple would not be allowed to open. For me, my life is too attached to the temple and I cannot separate myself from it. The temple is something so sacred that I cannot describe it. I feel proud and love it very much. I do not want to leave my temple. (Orang-Gu001)

It is not only priests who hold such sentiments about the Po Klaong Girai temple. Many other Cham people share these feelings. In numerous cases, temples are considered the most critical inheritance in the legacy of Champā people. Furthermore, according to a significant sector of the Cham population, the most important of all the temples is Po Klaong Girai, because of its association with King Po Klaong Girai:

I think Po Klaong Girai temple is both Cham heritage and a place for the Cham community to serve in their spiritual life. Cham people are proud of the former king and honour him because he built the most significant agricultural works that are still in use by people today. For myself, the Cham temples are essential, but most especially Po Klaong Girai temple. Although the researchers have not clearly defined him yet, the Cham community still recognises Po Klaong Girai as one of the greatest kings of the Cham. (Orang-Ta002)

Ong Camânay is the Cham temple keeper, or in other words, the person directly tasked with taking care of and protecting the temple. He is proud of his role as a cultural steward, as well as a community coordinator connecting the temple to the community. Ong Camânay’s son told me:

Spiritually speaking, my old father did his duty here. Later he fell ill and handed all this over to me in the form of a contract as a security guard from 1995 to now. Currently, the temple is under the management of the State. However, I still have a responsibility, with my ancestors, to protect the temple. We must preserve the temple for the following generations. For me, as a Cham, Po Klaong Girai temple is a sacred place that should be guarded. I am proud of being a security guard to protect the temple because I continue my ancestor’s work. There is nothing to compare to this joy. (Orang_Ta003)

Temples (Bimong) incorporate Cham history, architecture, art, and culture. They are physical manifestations of all of the symbolic elements of the Cham communities. The Cham people view Po Klaong Girai as a fulcrum around which the community can be centered and a point from which the history of Champā can be leveraged to promote solidarity in the Cham community, especially in the wake of traumatic historical events, such as the genocidal policies inflicted upon Cham communities during the reign of Minh Mang of Vietnam kingdom. Because of the fear of losing their cultural inheritance, many generations of Cham have been promoting the Katé festival to raise consciousness about preserving Cham culture in younger generations. I was fortunate to discuss this matter with one Katé organizer, Mr. Thanh Phu Ba, who in the 1950s began promoting the Katé festival to raise Cham awareness. As he explained, his generation tried to promote the Katé festival at Po Klaong Girai temple to preserve Cham culture, where temple is the host to the four most significant ceremonies among the Cham community. Today, whenever Mr. Thanh sees the image of people coming to the temple to celebrate the Katé festival, he explained how he feels a sense of happiness because he knows he and his friends have significantly contributed to helping Cham people become aware of, and feel proud about, their culture.

For Cham people, the temple awakens the spirit of their communities and the Katé festival is the activity during which Cham people express that spirit. For many local scholars, a sense of pride is furthermore found in how this temple contributes to the treasure of Vietnamese cultural heritage. One Cham scholar explained to me:

I have seen Po Klaong Girai temple since I was a kid. My grandparents told me that the gods had made the temple because it is grandiose. I mean at that time, I did not understand how the temple appeared; when I grew up, I understood that the Cham temple was built by humans, by our Cham ancestors. I am very proud of Cham heritage today and feel that Cham temples have many significant cultural and historical values for the Cham people, as well as for the Vietnamese people. (Orang_Ka004)

For the younger Cham generation, the modernization of contemporary society has had a substantial impact on them. Although many young Cham people are now swept into the vortex of urban society, the majority of people in the younger generation view the temple as a sacred symbol of pride for the nation. The temple is, first and foremost, a place where Cham people practice religion and is also where they can maintain the value of Cham culture.

In the memory of many young Cham people, the temple was, during their childhood, considered a quotidian part of Cham cultural heritage that demanded little attention. However, as adults, many people that I have grown up with expressed to me how they have begun to understand the significance of Po Klaong Girai. Today, more and more Cham people want to visit this sacred space to respect the glory of the ancient Champā kingdom and to connect with other Cham people. The temple has also become a space for Cham people to display their culture for tourists so that they can contribute to the development of tourism. Among these sacred and performative motivations for visiting this site, many people are increasingly proud of being Cham as their caretakers and elders have raised them with the knowledge about the role of the temple in the history of the Champā kingdom. One of my younger informants explained:

When I was a child, my grandfather told the story about King Po Klaong Girai, the Champā kingdom and building temples. I dreamed that I would follow him to the temples. When I was 13 years old, he brought me to Po Klaong Girai temple. I was overwhelmed by the beauty of the temple and loved it. Since then, I often read books about the history of Cham to learn about the story of our Cham kings. I feel nostalgic when I think about how Champā disappeared, but I am very proud of the ancestors that left this beautiful temple. (Orang-De006)

Through my informal conversations, I have recognized that among teenagers the majority do not know much about the temple and do not see it as sacred in the same way as the older generations. In their eyes, Po Klaong Girai temple is a heritage site like any other part of Cham cultural heritage. However, one significant finding is that, for many, the temple awakens a sense of cultural pride and historical awareness. In particular, this growing metacultural awareness often develops in experiences taking their non-Cham friends to visit the temple. As some younger friends reflected:

When I took my Kinh friends to the temple, they asked me why I saw Cham people often wear traditional Cham dresses to the temple, but you do not wear it. I felt ashamed at that time, but after that, I bought a new Cham traditional dress for the Katé festival. (Orang_Ra002)

Sometimes, when we come here, my non-Cham friends ask us about Cham culture and the temple but we do not know how to explain it. This made us feel ashamed, but it led us to find out more about Cham culture on the internet. I found much information about Cham temples and the history of my Cham people. I was so surprised because Champā was an advanced civilization and had its kingdom, which I have never known before that. It was sad about the history of Champā but thanks to taking friends here [Po Klaong Girai temple], I discovered much more about the origins of Cham. (Orang_Ra001)

In this way, Po Klaong Girai temple has become a connecting point to help younger generations develop a newfound sense of identity and spirituality when visiting the temple, or by seeking Cham cultural and historical information on the internet. Through these practices, the younger Cham generation can develop their understanding of the history and culture of their people, and further deepen their awareness of, and the desire for, preserving their ethnic culture.

Traditionally, each Cham family prepares offerings for worship at their temples during the Katé festival. Many visitors to Po Klaong Girai temple during this occasion are often impressed with the images of women who carry offerings to conduct religious ceremonies at the temple. Indeed, Cham women play a critical role in the ritual worship because they prepare offerings for the gods while men act only as supporters. Thus, women’s views about the temple also help to underscore the role of Po Klaong Girai in their spiritual lives. With many women, the temple and the gods are sacred, and women have to know the taboos associated with them. Elders often pass down lessons on taboos to their daughters to ensure they do not inadvertently (or deliberately) defile the temple, for example by entering the temple while menstruating and thereby being punished by the Yang (gods). Although this may appear to be a minimal and seemingly insignificant issue, it can adversely affect perceptions of such a sacred place in Cham culture. With the current trend for tourism, many visitors do not pay attention to this problem; in fact, they are mostly completely unaware of the prohibitions and thereby unwittingly contribute impurity to the holy temple. Two women who participated in the Katé festival in 2017 elaborated:

I remember when I was a teenager, my mother always advised me to stay at home if I was having my period. Other members of the family can go to worship. She said to me that Yang [Gods] and the temple are very sacred, and the place must be cleaned; hence, one cannot go to the temple during menstruation because the temple will be unclean, and Yang will punish members of the family. Therefore, I always advise my daughters and her friends to pay attention to this taboo because Po Klaong Girai temple is a holy place, so we all need to respect it and avoid making this place impure. (Orang-Ku001)

The temple is very sacred to me. Every year, we must go there for our traditional ceremonies to pray for health and prosperity for our family members. That is our belief, but if there are days of taboos within the family, they will not go to worship. I believe in holy Yang for the Cham. All Cham also think like that. (Orang-Ku002)

Over the course of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, the temple has become a space for cultivating shared heritage and collective pride of the Cham community beyond the boundaries of religion. For example, there are ceremonies at the temple that incorporate the participation of Bani (Cham Awal) practitioners. According to folkloric tales, the kings or the generals who are worshipped in Cham temples, especially in Po Klaong Girai temple, are those who made great contributions for the entire Cham population. Thus, the legacy of the temples is for all Cham people without religious discrimination. In the Panduranga region, the last realm of the Cham people before 1834, the kings and generals of the Cham who are worshipped in the temples are the ancestors of the present-day people of the region. Although Hinduism strongly influences the Cham temples in this area, the gods are local, from the kings and contributors of the Cham people in history. As a Cham Awal priest told me:

Po Klaong Girai temple is the legacy of all Cham, not just the Cham following Ahier (localised Hinduism). I followed Awal, but the king worshiped in the temple is our king and the common god of [all] Cham. Who can deny the history of our ancestors? The Cham following Ahier or Awal is of Cham blood. (Orang-Gu008)

For ordinary Cham Awal people, visiting the temples for worshiping or other activities is very common, but it is rarer with Awal religious dignitaries because of their traditional norm of not being allowed to go to Ahier temples. However, for some progressive Awal priests, the temples should not be distinguished as a product of religion only. According to them, Cham ancestors were also Hindu, and therefore, this temple is not only made by, and for, Cham Ahier, but rather the Cham population as a whole:

There are very few Awal priests visiting the temple [now], but for me, I want to visit here. There is no taboo against Awal priests visiting the legacy of Cham people. When you conduct ceremonies, you do it at home. That is a part of your belief. Po Klaong Girai temple here is like ancestral heritage passed down to us. I come here to admire the miracle of our ancestors who created it. I also learn more about how Ahier Cham people celebrate the Katé festival. I do not distinguish whom the temples belong to because all are the descendants of Po Klaong Girai, the blood of Cham. (Orang-De008)

The many members of the Cham community who follow Islam are also proud of the Cham temples because they argue the temples are their ancestral cultural heritage too. However, at present, Cham Muslims do have a different view of the meaning of Cham temples. Because Islam is based on the religious belief in Allah as the single most important tenet of their religion, the kings/gods worshipped at temples are generally totally ignored, even though Cham Muslims are also their descendants. One young Cham Muslim recounted the following episode:

Once, an Imâm called on me to talk. He asked why I wore Cham clothes to go to the Katé festival. He said “Our God is only Po Auluah, not some of those at the temple. We have our religious clothes”. You know what? I was shocked about that perspective. I responded to him right away. I said “the kings are our Cham ancestors, not outsiders. Why did you say I did wrong?” I also wear traditional Cham clothes. I visit the temple for the pride of my national history. Nothing affects my Islam religion. I still practice Islam, but I am visiting Po Klaong Girai temple to participate in the ceremonies of the Cham people to know our Cham culture. You should not confuse the kings/the gods of the Cham with the religion of Islam. (Orang-De008)

The majority of Cham who are of the Sunni Islam faith are less associated with the temples than the Awal and Ahier communities. Meanwhile, both Awal and Ahier religious communities also worship Allah (Po Auloah in Cham), while the Awal continue to venerate certain supernatural beings and the kings/gods of the Cham. Currently, there is increasing recognition among Cham Muslims in the distinctions between their ancestral kings and their religion. As a result, a small part of the Cham Muslims in Chau Doc community (An Giang Province) do not deny their ancestral Champā history and their kings (Taylor, 2007). This demonstrates the secure place of Cham temples as a common heritage of all Cham people.

Po Klaong Girai temple plays a crucial role in the spiritual life of the Cham people, and it became one of the most important topics discussed at a 2017 conference held in remembrance of the 185 years since the loss of the Champā kingdom (1832–2017). At this conference, many activists and researchers discussed issues relating to the conservation and management of Cham temples. Following the conference, the Cham Council submitted a petition to the Vietnamese government with many clauses. The issues outlined in this document include the current major problems in the management of Cham temples in Vietnam in general and in Ninh Thuan Province in particular, which is mainly focused on the Po Klaong Girai temple.

In sum, the Po Klaong Girai temple holds immense significance for the Cham community, being considered as a sacred and vital part of their cultural identity and spirituality. The temple serves as a space to pay homage to King Po Klaong Girai and to raise awareness about the Indigenous heritage of the Cham people. For community leaders, it is a place to continue the legacy of their ancestors in preserving and promoting Cham culture and serving Cham spiritual life. Despite religious differences, the temple serves as a common ground for all members of the Cham community to connect and preserve their cultural heritage.

As a living heritage site, the members of the Cham community take their responsibilities to protect the temple and its cultural values seriously. The elders pass on their knowledge and teachings about the associated taboos to the younger generations, to maintain the purity and spirituality of the temple. Despite the decline of the Champā civilization, the Po Klaong Girai temple remains a symbol of spiritual and cultural identity for the contemporary Cham community. They celebrate their heritage through events such as the Katé Festival, which not only gives a deeper sense of identity to the modern and future generations of Cham people, but also presents their culture to the outside world. This makes the festival a colorful and meaningful celebration of Cham heritage.

Celebrating Living Heritage at Po Klaong Girai Temple: An Insight into the Katé Festival

The Po Klaong Girai temple plays a crucial role in the four main public ceremonies of the Cham people—Peh Bambeng Yang, Yuer Yang, Katé, and Cambur. Of these, the Katé festival is the most well known and well attended. In this section, I examine the role of the Katé festival in illuminating the evolution of Cham community traditions surrounding temple rituals. The Katé festival serves as a testament to the ongoing adaptation of Cham traditions to changing circumstances. Despite its evolution over time, the festival remains an important expression of Cham cultural heritage and identity.

Connections Between Cham and Raglai Cultures in Relation to Cham Temples

A unique aspect of the Katé festival is the involvement of the Raglai community, who are regarded as having a close relationship with the Cham compared to other ethnic minorities in Vietnam. According to Cham beliefs, the Cham and Raglai are considered siblings from the same family, with the Cham being the elder and the Raglai being the younger. Under the Cham matriarchal system, the youngest sibling is entitled to inherit property, keep family heirlooms, and serve the ancestors. As a result, in ancient times, the Raglai were tasked by Cham kings with the responsibility of safeguarding the king’s belongings. Today, the Raglai still preserve traditional Cham clothing in their villages, and during the day of worship, they bring these traditional garments to the temple for the rituals. In return, the Cham prepare a special ceremony to welcome the Raglai participants.

Raglai people are warmly welcomed and considered as family members when they visit Cham villages. Before the main ceremonies at the temple, the Raglai people spend a day with the Cham community and participate in gatherings. This is the only official religious event where the Cham and Raglai communities come together throughout the year. The two communities then carry costumes to the temple, accompanied by musical performances and dances. During this procession, Raglai people, represented by village chiefs, elders, and dancers, take part in the ceremonial procession of King Po Klaong Girai along with dignitaries, Cham dancers, and the surrounding crowds—creating a sense of unity (see Fig. 5.1). Once at the temple, Cham women, musicians, and Raglai musicians perform their traditional music and dances. This event highlights the strong bond between the Cham and Raglai communities and adds to the vibrant atmosphere of the Katé festival.

Fig. 5.1
A photo of a procession headed by a few men in similar costumes playing hand drums followed by men in traditional wear. The background has a building with an arched entrance.

Source Author, 2016

Traditional clothing procession: Raglai men accompany the Cham community with musical instruments as they bring the King’s attire to the Po Klaong Girai Temple

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The presence of Raglai people at the Katé festival reflects the former Champā administrative system. In the past, Raglai were responsible for safeguarding some of the king’s possessions, while the Ong Camânei, the temple keepers, held onto the rest. The presence of Raglai at the Katé festival today perpetuates the historical relationship between the Cham and Raglai peoples and underscores the multi-ethnic character of the Champā kingdom (Dharma, 2012). The Katé festival thereby showcases the close connection between the Cham and Raglai while celebrating the unique values of Cham cultural heritage. The Po Klaong Girai temple, as the venue for the festival, serves as a sacred space for the Cham people to express their spiritual and cultural values. Despite financial challenges that sometimes prevent many Raglai from attending other sites, the tradition of Raglai visiting Po Klaong Girai persists, thanks to the significance of the living cultural connection between the two groups.

The Role of Cham Religious Dignitaries in the Temple

The temple is a central place of worship for the Cham community and serves as a venue for various community rituals. It is here where they come to pay homage to their kings and gods. The activities of the Katé festival at the temple are managed by the Ahier priests, who play important roles in the ceremony. The head of the temple, the Po Adhia, acts as the master of ceremonies. The On Kadhar sing hymns, the Muk Pajuw offer holy offerings, and the Ong Camânei preside over the statue bath. The Basaih priests also support the ceremony. Each priest has a distinct role that has been passed down through generations.

The ceremony cannot commence without the participation of the four dignitaries who perform the opening of the temple. This technical procedure has been in place for hundreds of years and is a principle and tradition that the Cham community still holds dear to protect the sacred space for their gods. However, due to government initiatives to develop tourism, the temple has been open every day for tourists since the 1990s, breaking the accepted procedures of Cham cultural and religious views regarding sacred sites.

Today, when the Cham need to perform rituals, they must first inform the Relic Management Board in advance to close the temple before the priests come to open it again, as the management of the temple is now officially undertaken by the state authorities and not by the Cham community. This shift in traditional patterns of management and use demonstrates the crucial role of the state in the management of Cham temples and highlights the need for the Cham community to seek permission from the state to conduct traditional activities.

The religious ceremonies at the Po Klaong Garai temple reflect elements of Hindu religion that have been localized and transformed into a specific form of Hinduism known as the Ahier. This localized form of Hinduism includes a cosmologically dualistic relationship with the Awal (Dharma, 1987). Although Hindu priests have influenced the ceremonies, they have been adapted to include non-Hindu religious dignitaries such as the Kadhar, Camânei, and Muk Pajaw who only started participating in temple worship in the fifteenth century (Lafont, 2014). Additionally, the musical instrument, rabap/kanyi, played by the Kadhar in the Katé rituals, is closely related to the Malaysian rabap and became more popular in Cham areas after the fifteenth century (Sakaya, 2003).

This demonstrates the adaptability of the Cham community to external cultural influences and changes, as long as they align with their agricultural lifestyle and cultural foundation. The image of the current Cham priests and the instruments they use highlight the Hindu influence, but also show that the Cham are open to accepting other cultures and changes that they see as appropriate for their life and needs, not just for preservation of tradition (Nakamura, 2008).

Cultural Performance

The Katé was once just a religious ceremony performed by Cham priests and a few elderly worshippers. However, after 1967, more cultural activities such as traditional music and dance were added to the festival, making it the largest Cham celebration. Traditional dance and music have since become an integral component of the annual Katé festival, showcasing Cham’s rich cultural heritage. This new tradition was invented by the Cham community for religious purposes and has been widely accepted as it does not conflict with existing Cham traditions. Today, the performance of dances and music is not only an important aspect of the Katé festival, but also an integral part of Cham temple rituals.

Cham people have a rich musical tradition that has greatly influenced Vietnamese music throughout the country (Addiss, 1971, p. 34). They possess a diverse array of musical instruments, including those in the percussion family such as ginang, baranâng, and ceng, brass family instruments like saranai and seng, and string family instruments like kanyi and rabap. The rabap is particularly used in the main ritual at the central tower, kalan, while other types of instruments and dances are performed in front of the temple.

Cham folk dances are a particularly important aspect of the Katé festival, with many different styles and forms, each with its own unique content. These dances are also used for religious services in other rituals such as Rija Nâgar, Rija Praong, as well as for social gatherings and cultural performances on stage. Some of the most popular styles include fan dances, water carrying dances, and many others. While most of these dances are performed during on-stage performances at the Katé festival, some ritual dances also take place during different rituals.

At the Katé festival, there is a group of performers who bring to life the traditional Cham music and dance during the procession of the clothing of the gods to the temple. These dances are performed alongside the traditional Cham instruments and serve as a prelude to the great ritual at the temple. While many traditional Cham ceremonies, such as Rija Praong, Rija Dayap, Rija Harei, or Chwa, showcase different types of dances and music within families, the Katé festival provides a platform for the public display of these cultural performances. Thus, the Katé festival at the temple and in the villages is a unique opportunity for the Cham community to showcase their rich cultural heritage not only to other Cham communities but also to visitors from around the world.

Contributions to the Local Community

The Katé festival is a significant gathering for the Cham people, who gather annually to express their devotion and offer gifts to the gods. It is also a time for the Cham community to contribute their support to maintain the rituals and festivals of their temple. The Council for Cham Brahman Dignitaries, who are responsible for organizing the event, calls upon the community for financial support. As a Cham priest stated, “They are delighted to support the council because they see the meaningful work that dignitaries are carrying out.”

Through my fieldwork at Po Klaong Girai temple during the Katé ceremony, I observed that the Cham people are eager to contribute their support, with many donating what they can, regardless of the amount. As one member of the community noted, “Every year, I always donate a little money for dignitaries. I will give as much support as I can as long as I have a heart. ‘Many a little makes a mickle’; that helps the dignitaries have money to prepare for the next rituals for the Cham community.”

These donations from the community are essential as they serve as the primary source of funding for the dignitaries to maintain and promote the festival in the long term. The funds collected from tourism, while they may provide additional support, are not the sole source of funding for the event.

The Katé festival is also a chance for the Cham people to preserve and promote their unique cultural heritage. Through the performance of traditional dances and music, as well as the transmission of myths, legends, hymns, and folk stories, the festival provides a space for the preservation and promotion of Cham culture. The Po Klaong Girai temple, as the site of the Katé festival, serves as a sacred and cultural symbol for the Cham people, representing their pride and cultural identity.

In conclusion, the Katé festival is not only an opportunity for the expression of Cham spiritual culture, but it is also a site for the preservation and promotion of Cham cultural heritage. Each year, the festival and temple provide a space for the spiritual and cultural reproduction of the Cham community, serving as a vital symbol of their identity and pride.

Preserving and Celebrating Cultural Identity: Revitalizing Cultural Pride Through Iconic Representation

Verse

Verse I could not choose to be a child of the President of France or a grandchild in direct line of the King of Brunei I could not choose my birthplace in Thailand or America I am a Cham since the first cry in life Either when I am rooted here Or when I wander to the last horizon I am still a Cham, even when I burn up with the pyre at the end of life. Be joyful when we are forgotten by history Be joyful when we survive Be joyful when we still could shake hands, kiss, and drink in the evening. It’s fortunate that we have our heads, bodies, and four limbs intact More fortunate that we still have parents, siblings, and friends If by mishap something is lacking, we are still happier than the dead. (Inrasara, 2002)

In his poem “The Riddle of Pauh Catwai” (2022), the Cham poet Inrasara captures the essence of Cham identity and the pride that the Cham community holds for their heritage and culture. Through his words, he highlights the idea that being a Cham is not a matter of choice, but an inherent part of who they are. Regardless of where they are born or live, the Cham identity is deeply ingrained and unshakable. The poet speaks to the resilience of the Cham people, who have endured adversity and suffering but have not lost their sense of pride and belonging. The preservation of their spiritual practices at the temple is a testament to the importance of their cultural heritage. Inrasara acknowledges the Cham’s strong sense of community and their appreciation for the family and friends they still have. In the end, the poet declares that the Cham are happier than the dead, as they still have their heads, bodies, and limbs, as well as the relationships that they hold dear. The poem is a celebration of Cham identity, resilience, and pride. Through his words, Inrasara reminds the Cham people of their rich cultural heritage and the importance of preserving it for future generations.

Cham Temples: A Symbol of Cultural Identity and Spirituality

Cham temples are revered symbols of Cham cultural identity and spirituality. One of the most notable among them is the Po Klaong Girai temple, which is renowned for its architectural beauty and cultural significance. The Cham people use the image of the Po Klaong Girai temple in logos of organizations and associations as a symbol of their cultural identity and spirit, such as:

  1. 1.

    The Champā Cultural Preservation Association of United States

  2. 2.

    The International Office of Champā (IOC-Champā)

  3. 3.

    The Champā Culture and Tradition of the United States

  4. 4.

    The Council for the Social—Cultural Development of Champā

  5. 5.

    The Council of Indigenous Peoples in Today’s Vietnam (CIP-TVN).

  6. 6.

    Cham Culture Research Center

  7. 7.

    Cham Studies

  8. 8.

    Cham Association in Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City).

The Po Klaong Girai temple serves as an iconic representation of Cham culture, history, and identity. It is a symbol of the Cham people’s cultural authenticity and is a source of pride for the community. Even among young Cham people today, the Po Klaong Girai temple continues to be used as a symbol of their cultural heritage (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2
Eight photos of the Po Klaong Girai temple logo used by different Cham organizations and association. Some of them include Cham Association in Ho Chi Minh City, Young Cham Road Trip group in Ninh Thuan, and Caklaing Brodace village.

Po Klaong Girai temple is frequently featured as a logo by various Cham organizations and associations

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The use of the Po Klaong Girai temple image is also prevalent in Cham weddings. The temple serves as a symbol of both cultural identity and unity for young Cham couples. Through my experiences attending Cham weddings throughout Vietnam, I have observed that families often incorporate the image of the Po Klaong Girai temple in their wedding photos and decorations. This not only displays their pride in Cham culture but also adds a sense of joy and familiarity to their special day.

For many Cham couples, taking pictures at the Po Klaong Girai temple is a way to commemorate their love and make a wish for its longevity. Some even choose to wear traditional clothing at the temple to keep the traditions alive for future generations. These photos serve as a historical document and a testament to the importance of preserving Cham culture.

During my fieldwork, I had the opportunity to speak with a couple taking their wedding photos at the Po Klaong Girai temple (as shown in Fig. 5.3). They shared with me their thoughts on the significance of this cultural and spiritual symbol in their lives and the lives of their community. According to the couple, they take pictures to put in their album for future generations to look back on with pride. The beauty of the Po Klaong Girai temple and traditional Cham clothing is an important symbol of their cultural identity. They believe that these photos, taken in traditional Cham clothing, will help their children and descendants understand and appreciate their cultural heritage. As Cham culture is likely to change significantly in the future, preserving these memories and symbols today will be of great value to future generations. As Orang_De006 said, “What you keep today will undoubtedly be very valuable for your children later.”

Fig. 5.3
An illustration depicts a man and a woman in wedding attire with text in a foreign language. Text reads, save the date.

Wedding invitation from a young Cham couple (Designed by Jaya Thiên in 2016)

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The use of traditional clothing and the Po Klaong Girai temple as a backdrop in wedding photos is not only a display of cultural appreciation, but also a representation of Cham identity and pride. This increased visibility of Cham culture through visual media has made the Po Klaong Girai temple and Cham culture more meaningful and alive among the younger generation of Cham people. Social media has also played a role in this, with couples often sharing their photos as a symbol of their pride and to preserve their traditional culture.

As a founding member of the Cham Association in Ho Chi Minh City, I have witnessed the deep significance the Po Klaong Girai temple holds for young Cham people. They use the image of the temple to connect with their cultural roots and to represent the Cham community among those living in urban areas, particularly students studying in the city (Fig. 5.4). One prominent administrator of the Cham Association told me:

The Cham Association in SaigonFootnote 1 is set up to connect the Cham members who live, study and work in Saigon to have the opportunity to sit together. The Po Klaong Girai temple is not only a logo of the association but also a crucial part of art and cultural performances of Cham people in Saigon that we aim to introduce to friends and guests of state authorities. Through this symbol, and the activity of the Cham association, we would like to introduce Cham culture here and want to raise awareness of the Cham culture in young Cham people who might be more influenced by modernity. (Orang-Gu007)

Fig. 5.4
A poster depicts 4 pairs of young men and women in traditional wear in dance movements against the background of a temple. The women have pots on their heads.

Image of Po Klaong Girai is used as the banner each year for the biggest cultural performance by the Cham Association in Ho Chi Minh City (as captured in a photo by Inrajaya in 2014)

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The use of the Po Klaong Girai temple image serves as a recognizable symbol for the Cham community in Ho Chi Minh City and helps to establish a sense of belonging outside of their homeland of Panduranga. A student who is a leader of a Cham youth group in the city expressed:

We see this as a Cham national emblem so when making the logo on the soccer T-shirt, we are very proud of that. When using this logo for the group, we also want to affirm that, even when we go to study in universities far away from home, Cham culture and Cham temples will be important symbols and souls for us to strive to study, work and live here. (Orang-De007)

The image is also used as a banner in cultural performances by Cham communities in Vietnam and the United States, serving as a symbol of community affiliation, ethnic identity, and cultural authenticity. These activities help to introduce Cham culture to those outside of the community, raising awareness and encouraging preservation of Cham culture. A member of the Cham community living in the United States stated:

Po Klaong Girai temple is used as a banner to introduce the image of Cham culture and encourage Cham people to preserve their cultural identity overseas. In parallel, through this representative image and cultural demonstration, it introduces, and calls to action different organizations and individuals from the homeland to overseas for protecting the essence of Cham culture, not only for the multiculturalism in Vietnam but also the preservation of human culture. (Orang-Ta005)

Therefore, the image of the Po Klaong Girai temple not only represents pride in Cham culture but also serves as a form of social action, through art and community programs, to preserve Cham culture and introduce it to others.

Celebrating Cultural Identity, Revitalizing Traditions, and Fostering Community Ties

The Katé festival holds a special place in the hearts of members of the Cham community as it is a time to connect with their rich cultural history. During the festival, the Kadhar priest performs a ceremony to invite the gods and former kings to attend the festival with the Cham community. Through the hymns performed by the Kadhar, Cham people learn about the history of their former kings and generals and are able to connect with their ancestry. The songs are filled with stories of the gods and legends of the Cham people. During the festival, the Ong Kadhar plays the rabap instrument and recites hymns related to each god, and the Cham people give offerings to the gods throughout the procession of the ritual.

According to one member of the Cham community, “My grandparents told stories about the Cham former kings, but I was not interested because I was still a kid. However, today I hear the Kadhar sing the hymns and each hymn is a story of each god. When the name of each god is invited, we pray to that god for our health and peace. I learn a lot about Cham history and feel love for much of what our ancestors passed down [to us] for today” (Orang-De005).

Another member of the Cham community said, “I feel that this space is very sacred. Every time the name of the god is called it is like you relive the historical moments of each king and general of our Cham people. I feel that our previous generations have built and protected our kingdom and culture. That effort must be appreciated. I think that young people like us need to be responsible for preserving the legacy that our ancestors left behind. I feel proud and consider everything here as sacred” (Orang-Ra002).

These sentiments reflect the cultural pride and connection to history that the Katé festival brings to the Cham community, and underscores the importance of preserving their cultural heritage for future generations.

These statements reveal that the Cham community has gained a deeper understanding of their history through the stories of their former kings and generals. These tales, often shared through hymns performed during the Katé festival and other Cham events, evoke a sense of pride and ethnic consciousness among Cham people and connect them to their former polities and civilizations. The combination of these hymns with the art of singing and the rabap instrument during the Katé festival creates a ritual rich in sacred cultural performance. As a result, the Katé festival serves not only as a means of preserving and promoting the tangible cultural heritage, literary values, and artistic performances of Cham culture, but also as a source of national pride for the Cham people.

In recent years, movements promoting Cham cultural pride have flourished, especially since the establishment of the Cham Association in Saigon in 2005. Before this time, attendance at the Katé ceremony was limited, with few young Cham participating and wearing traditional Cham dress to the temples. Modern and Western clothing was more prevalent, only being worn by the older generation. Many young people reported feeling uncomfortable wearing traditional Cham clothing at that time.

Nevertheless, today, traditional Cham clothing accounts for the majority of garments that people wear during the Katé (Fig. 5.5). “I am extremely proud of our Cham attire,” says Orang-De005. “Every year, I take the time to prepare beautiful traditional clothing for our community to wear during the Katé festival at Po Klaong Girai Temple. My friends and I take great pride in our preparations, and I feel proud seeing the stunning Cham attire worn by many of our people.” This statement highlights the growing sense of pride in Cham culture and tradition, as evidenced by the increased popularity of traditional Cham clothing at the Katé festival.

Fig. 5.5
A photo of many young men and women dressed traditionally standing and posing for the camera. The background depicts the temple.

Source Author, 2016

Cham and non-Cham friends dressed in traditional Cham attire during the Katé festival.

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A young Cham man, aged 38, shared his thoughts on the significance of wearing traditional clothing during the Katé festival in an informal conversation with the author. He acknowledged that the resurgence of pride in traditional clothing among the younger generation has revitalized the festival and made it more appealing to the youth. As he stated, “In the past, not many of my peers wore traditional clothes to the temple during the Katé festival. We were intimidated by it. I also didn’t dare to wear traditional clothing there. But now, I can see that the younger generation is proud to don traditional attire and participate in the festival at the temple. It’s even made our generation feel ashamed for not doing the same” (Orang-Dem009).

Another young Cham expressed his feelings about the trend of wearing traditional clothing at the festival. He said, “I have been wearing modern clothes for many years, but seeing everyone dressed in traditional Cham clothes at the festival made me feel out of place and embarrassed. Next year, I’ll have to prepare some new Cham clothes for myself to blend in with the festival atmosphere, otherwise, everyone will make fun of me” (Orang-Dem005).

This call was met with a positive response and sparked a renewed interest in the wearing of traditional Cham clothing during the festival. The increased awareness of the importance of preserving cultural heritage, as well as the desire to connect with one’s roots, led to a resurgence of traditional Cham clothing at the Katé festival. As a result, the number of young people wearing traditional Cham clothes has increased significantly in recent years (see Table 5.1). The use of social media has been instrumental in spreading information about the traditional clothing and the importance of wearing it during the festival. This has helped to revitalize the festival, promote cultural heritage, and foster a sense of pride among the Cham people.

Table 5.1 An example of calling for social movement
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The photo challenge “Are You Ready?” during the 2017 Katé festival was a call to action for members of the Cham community to embrace their cultural heritage and participate in the festival in full traditional attire. The challenge was initiated on Facebook and encouraged members to post a photo of their traditional Cham dress, tag three or more friends to do the same, and include the hashtag “#AwChamPostChallengeKate2017.” This social media campaign helped to create a festive atmosphere and increase the visibility of the Cham community’s cultural heritage, as well as promote a sense of pride and unity among members.

This social media challenge quickly gained momentum, with a large number of participants from all over the world sharing their photos in traditional Cham attire. The use of Facebook as a platform allowed the message to reach a wide audience and encouraged more people to join in on the challenge. The photos that were shared as part of the challenge showed people of all ages and backgrounds proudly wearing traditional Cham clothing. The hashtag #AwChamPostChallengeKate2017 became a trending topic, showing the level of engagement and interest from the Cham community.

The success of this social media movement is a testament to the power of technology in promoting cultural pride and reviving traditions. By using Facebook, the organizers of the challenge were able to reach a large audience and create a sense of community among Cham people. This, in turn, has helped to keep the cultural traditions of the Cham people alive and flourishing (Figs. 5.6 and 5.7). Examples of photos shared as part of the “Are You Ready?” challenge during the 2017 Katé festival (Source Facebook, 2017).

Fig. 5.6
Two social media posts with text in a foreign language. The first photo is of women dressed in traditional attire. The second is of a young man in traditional wear standing in the midst of a crowd and taking a selfie.

Young Cham individual posting online in response to a challenge to wear traditional Cham clothing in celebration of the Katé

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Translated:

  • Following the movement…

  • Our families prepared new traditional clothes already, now just waiting to go up to the temple.

  • #AwChamPostChallengeKaté2017

  • Challenge: Thoang Dang, Kim Tagalau, Mai Ka, Hang Ni… are you ready?

  • p/s: Hoang Vinh, Bao Ngoc, Huong Giang, Duyen Thanh, NaiLuu Kalu, Lam Van …

  • This year, will we go together like last year?

Fig. 5.7
Four social media posts. 1. Cham in the United States of America. 2. Cham living in Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam. 3. An American P h. D. student studing Cham language and culture. 4. A member of the Cham Sunni Muslim community.

Cultural movement in traditional dress being posted on social media

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This challenge aimed to instill pride in the cultural heritage that has been preserved by many ancestors among young people. The Katé festival provided the perfect opportunity for members of the Cham community to express their pride and showcase their cultural identity. The response to the challenge was widespread, with not only Cham youth participating but also members of the Cham community, including those in Vietnam and the United States.

In the overseas Cham community, the movement served as a reminder of their cultural identity and encouraged them to maintain their cultural heritage despite being far from their homeland. It also helped younger generations of Cham born in the United States to learn more about their cultural identity.

A Cham American, aged 54, expressed their delight at the enthusiastic response from young people and their participation in spreading the movement on social networks. The individual, who has children born in the United States who have never been to Vietnam, sees this as an excellent way for them to learn more about their national spirit and not forget their roots. They also mention that they order Cham clothes from Vietnam every year for their daughters to help keep their cultural heritage alive (Orang-Ta005).

The #AwCham challenge highlights the significance of material heritage in daily life and the influence of visual media on the preservation and dissemination of Cham cultural heritage. The challenge provides an opportunity for members of the Cham community worldwide, from Panduranga to the United States, to come together and celebrate their cultural identity, regardless of national borders, time zones, climates, political situations, and economic conditions.

The event that creates a collective sense of unity is deeply ingrained in the Cham cultural identity, which is exemplified in their traditional clothing. The Cham consider their attire to be an icon of their cultural identity, and the event reinforces this belief. Moreover, the Cham people’s use of digital media and social networking to interact transnationally is an innovative practice that fosters a sense of community among them. By sharing their passion and appreciation for all things of Cham, such as their traditional clothing, food, music, and art, this practice strengthens the sense of togetherness and belonging among the Cham people, regardless of their geographical location. The practice serves as a means of connecting with others who share similar values and interests and reinforces the importance of preserving and promoting their cultural heritage. (“By sharing their love for all things Cham” refers to the Cham people using digital media and social networking to express their admiration and appreciation for their cultural heritage, such as their traditional clothing, food, music, art, and other aspects of their cultural identity. The practice helps to strengthen the sense of community among the Cham people who share a passion for their heritage and serves as a means of connecting with others who share similar values and interests.)

Today, there are several cultural movements that support a revival of ethnic self-awareness in the Cham community through the use of social media. Before each festival, many social media groups create events to inform people of the time of the festival and to encourage young people to participate in cultural movements. These efforts help address the need for preserving traditional cultural values that are at risk of being lost in contemporary society. The revival of ethnic and cultural pride of their ancestors helps maintain the traditional culture of the Cham and preserve it for future generations.

The Katé festival provides an opportunity for Cham people to connect not only through online social networks but also in person, as it is the most significant occasion for the Cham community to come together. Young Cham living in Ho Chi Minh City eagerly look forward to returning home for the festival, where they can reunite with their families and friends and participate in the cultural events. They also bring their non-Cham friends to the festival to introduce them to the Cham culture and festival, further promoting cultural awareness and understanding (Orang-Ra003).

The Katé festival serves as a platform for the promotion and preservation of Cham cultural heritage by introducing it to non-Cham friends. The presence of friends from different countries such as the United States, Malaysia, Philippines, and Cambodia adds to the significance of the event as it showcases the appeal of Cham culture beyond national borders. This year, a Cham student studying abroad brought a group of friends to the festival, including Cham descendants from Cambodia who were elated to be back in their ancestral land. As one friend said:

Being at the Katé festival is an emotional experience for me. Growing up, I only heard stories about the Cham motherland from my grandparents and saw images of the culture on the internet. I never thought I would have the opportunity to visit. Thanks to my friend, I was able to attend the festival, meet the Cham community, and immerse myself in the rich cultural traditions. The sight of everyone dressed in gorgeous Cham clothing, making their way to the temple, was breathtaking. I hope to welcome you to Cambodia soon. (Orang_De010)

This celebration is not only a way to connect the Cham community but also to invite others to appreciate and respect the Cham cultural heritage.

Although the Katé festival is primarily known as a significant religious activity of the Cham Ahier community, members of the Awal Cham community also participate in the worship at the temple. During the festival, gods from both the Cham Ahier and Awal histories are worshipped, including Po Tang Ahaok, Po Riyak, Po Haniim Par, and Po Nai Mâh Ghang who appeared during the period of King Po Rome (Sakaya, 2013, p. 256). At the Po Rome temple, Awal community members from Pamblap villages participate in the festival because they are descendants of King Po Rome, while at the Po Klaong Girai temple, Awal families from Ram village attend (Noseworthy, 2013). One woman from the Awal community who worships at Po Klaong Girai temple explained: “My family has been worshiping at the Po Klaong Girai temple for many years, so whenever Katé season comes, my family will bring offerings there for worship. I do not know why my family worships here, but my ancestors did that, so I have to follow. I do not think the temple belongs only to Ahier Cham; it is for all Cham. Everyone thinks like that. I am also a Cham, so I come here to worship my ancestors and my Cham gods. That is normal. My daughters will keep this tradition like me” (Orang-Ku003).

Therefore, the Katé festival is not only a place for the Cham Ahier community to come together, but it also serves as an opportunity for other members of the community to meet friends and perform spiritual practices. The Po Klaong Girai temple, as a Cham heritage site, is a sacred space that is still very much alive and relevant to the local community. The activities and rituals performed at the temple during the Katé festival imbue the community with a deeper sense of their Cham cultural history.

The Intersection of Community, Cultural Identity, and Social Media in Shaping Self-Perception

Identity is mostly in the process of change; it is never frozen. Being able to recreate one’s identity requires bravery. It takes bravery to conquer something but knowing how to destroy it is more courageous hundred times over. If we keep embracing an [old] identity, we will isolate ourselves from the world around us. Moreover, then we will disappear! (Inrasara, 2018—my translation)

In this piece, Inrasara offers his artistic perspectives on the themes of identity, tradition, and creativity. He argues that identity is a constantly changing and evolving process, and that the ability to recreate one’s identity takes bravery. He encourages the Cham people to embrace change and not to become trapped within the confines of tradition. Through this exploration, Inrasara highlights the importance of being open to new experiences and perspectives in shaping our understanding of self.

In this section, the author delves into the relationship between tradition and new cultural practices in the Cham community. It is argued that new cultural practices can complement or supplement traditional culture and meet the needs of the community in the present, rather than destroying tradition. However, challenges such as authenticity and commodification often arise from outside sources and are met with resistance from the Cham community. The author discusses the ways in which members of the Cham community perceive and respond to these threats to their cultural heritage.

Identity continues to be an important topic of discussion among Cham intellectuals, as evidenced by the numerous conversations taking place on social media platforms like Facebook and Blogger. In October 2018, several debates emerged around the topic of identity and its relation to Cham culture and traditions. The poet Inrasara sparked a debate about the balance between destruction and creation in shaping identity, while political activist Thanh Dai called for a shared sense of identity among the global Cham diaspora. The writer TraViya warned of the dangers of changing traditions too quickly and carelessly, while Ba Van Trinh explored the challenges posed by social change to traditional Cham women’s costumes. These debates reinforce the idea that traditional Cham identity is under threat from contemporary society and tourism development.

Inrasara, TraViya, and Ba Van Trinh believed that Cham identity is not a fixed entity, but is constantly being negotiated and redefined within the community. They argued that tradition must be adapted and updated over time, but that this process must be carried out with caution, taking into account both positive and negative consequences. Thanh Dai, on the other hand, emphasized the importance of identity for protecting Cham traditions and securing the rights of the Indigenous community.

TraViya also shared his perspective on Cham traditions in the context of change. He argued that while some traditional practices may need to be revised or eliminated to suit modern times and lifestyles, care must be taken to ensure that the essence of Cham culture is not lost in the process. Young people must be cautious when considering changes to tradition and must thoroughly understand the consequences of their actions. He emphasized that preserving the tradition of a people requires a deep understanding of its meaning and value, and a love and hope for the tradition itself (TraViya, 12/2018).

In addition to the thoughts shared by TraViya, other members of the Cham community hold similar views about the need for caution when it comes to adopting changes to traditions. I had several discussions with village elders, intellectuals, and younger members of the community, and they all agreed that it is important to consider the impact of changes on Cham traditions.

While changes imposed from outside the community are often met with resistance and negativity, local innovations and initiatives that complement traditional practices are perceived positively. For example, the use of traditional Cham script and images of Cham temples on T-shirts was seen as a new form of expression that respects and pays homage to the history of the Champā civilization. This innovation has helped to bring elements of Cham heritage into the mainstream and has increased cultural pride among young people. However, some older members of the community expressed concern that younger generations are becoming disconnected from their ancestral roots and the rich history of the Cham people. They believe that it is important for young people to understand the significance of tradition and the importance of preserving it for future generations. In short, Cham identity is a dynamic category that is constantly being negotiated and redefined. While it is important for the community to embrace change and innovation, it is equally important to be mindful of the impact that these changes may have on the preservation of traditional Cham heritage.

The Champā civilization, which existed from the second century to the nineteenth century AD, has left a lasting impact on the Cham community in Vietnam. Today, only a small fraction of the Cham people still exist, but they have managed to maintain their cultural heritage and identity as one of the 54 ethnic groups in the country. To preserve their heritage, Cham people draw upon their spiritual beliefs and affirm their ethnic identity, as seen in places like Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces.

However, development and tourism can pose a threat to the integrity of Cham identity. The community is concerned about the risk of cultural encroachment and the need to maintain their cultural traditions and independence. To this end, Cham people have embraced some changes within the community, such as the production of Cham-themed t-shirts, to express their cultural pride and adapt to new social and historical conditions. According to Thanh Le (2015), Cham identity can be considered both “integrated” with the national culture and “becoming,” as Cham people continue to preserve their cultural heritage while also embracing new elements. Thus, to preserve the culture of minority groups like the Cham, state authorities and heritage managers need to promote their relative historical and ethnic independence.

Social media has emerged as a crucial tool for expressing cultural identity and pride among Cham people in Vietnam. As observed by numerous social scientists (Baron, 2013; Postill & Pink, 2012; Sage, 2013; Sedlacik, 2015), social media has become a platform for individuals to voice their opinions on social issues and shape their impact on the world. Cham people are utilizing these online platforms to showcase their cultural heritage, particularly through the use of symbols such as the Po Klaong Girai temple as their profile backgrounds or avatars.

Not only does social media help in spreading information about Cham culture, but it also offers a space for the Cham community to reflect on the challenges and issues surrounding conservation and tourism development. As Postill and Pink (2012) argue, social media provides a multivocal representation of these issues and amplifies the voices of young Cham people who use these platforms to critique contemporary management practices.

Moreover, social media has played a significant role in preserving and promoting Cham cultural values. It has made it easier to disseminate images and information about Cham heritage and cultural events, which has helped to raise awareness and stimulate a sense of pride in Cham cultural identity among young people. This aligns with Baron’s (2013) findings that social media, especially Facebook, serves as a platform for youth expression and socio-political participation, and contributes to the legitimization of information and voice building in social movements. In sum, social media has proven to be an effective means of conveying Cham cultural heritage and promoting cultural pride among young people. By providing a space for multivocal representations of cultural and social issues, social media has helped the Cham community to preserve and promote their cultural values, and has enabled the dissemination of information about Cham culture beyond national and international boundaries.

Social media platforms have emerged as a crucial tool for marginalized communities to voice their concerns and participate in preservation efforts on a local and national level (Sedlacik, 2015). In the case of the Cham people, Po Klaong Girai temple symbolizes their cultural heritage and serves as a source of inspiration for the community to reconnect with their cultural roots.

Social media provides an opportunity for young Cham people to actively promote and preserve their cultural heritage by raising awareness and educating their peers about the significance of their cultural values. Through online platforms, the Cham can disseminate information about their cultural heritage quickly and effectively, increasing their symbolic capital and stimulating a sense of pride in their cultural identity. Moreover, social media platforms allow the Cham community to express their views and participate in discussions about the preservation of their cultural heritage and the challenges posed by tourism development. The ability to share their thoughts and opinions on these topics through social media provides the Cham with a powerful platform to engage with the world and bring attention to their cause.

In conclusion, social media will continue to play a key role in amplifying the voices of marginalized communities, including the Cham, in their efforts to preserve their cultural heritage. Po Klaong Girai temple is a testament to the importance of cultural heritage for the Cham people and serves as a symbol of their cultural identity, one that they are determined to preserve for future generations.

Conclusion

In all these ways, the Po Klaong Girai temple plays a central role in the spiritual and social lives of the Cham people. Representations of the temple are not limited to Ninh Thuan Province but are carried by Cham people across different locations, both within Ho Chi Minh City and overseas. The annual Katé festival showcases the Cham culture’s dynamic nature and highlights the community’s efforts to promote and preserve their cultural heritage.

The relationship between the tangible heritage of the temple and the living heritage of the Cham people is complex and mutually constitutive. The temple’s architecture is imbued with meaning as religious practices are carried out there, while these practices are meaningful as they take place in a sacred space. The temple serves as a symbol of Cham identity, cultural authenticity, and heritage preservation, reflecting the Cham community’s attempts to enrich their culture and reclaim their identity.

In Ninh Thuan Province, the preservation of Cham culture is seen as a priority for developing tourism and promoting the socio-economic growth of the region and its people. Local authorities have taken steps to restore Cham temples and upgrade their infrastructure, and the Po Klaong Girai temple has been actively promoted as a tourist destination.

The conservation of living heritage is a complex process, involving authenticity, commodification, community identity, and discursive practices on social media. In the face of globalization, the Cham community is increasingly looking to affirm their cultural pride as a means of preserving their heritage. Social media provides a valuable platform for Cham people to express their sentiments and opinions about heritage preservation, both domestically and globally, and engage in discussions with the government and heritage managers.