Abstract
This study proposes a comparative analysis between urban and rural areas concerning the magnitude or intensity with which the constructs are related to expected quality-perceived quality-perceived value as influencing aspects in the level of satisfaction and citizen loyalty in three dimensions: Territorial planning and roads; provision of municipal services and environmental management. This research used the PLS software applying the ACSI model in the 5-hypothesis approach. A questionnaire was delivered to a sample population of 428 citizens in the rural area of Tenguel and 521 citizens in the urban area of Tarqui in the city of Guayaquil. The statistical result shows significant differences in citizen perception between urban and rural populations about the quality of public services, which determines satisfaction and loyalty in choosing the place of residence. Through a multi-group analysis, the main differences in the perception of the quality of services between rural citizens and urban citizens have been identified. These findings are essential for public policy design to improve the territory’s satisfaction, well-being, and people’s sense of belonging.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
1 Introduction
Territorial public policies aimed at the search for environmental conservation, as well as the adequate provision of public services in rural and urban areas, constitute an opportunity to attract tourism and retain population. (Ekins et al., 2019; Rebaï, 2019; Xiao et al., 2017).
In the scientific literature, there are several investigations on the impact of public management on citizen satisfaction. The studies(Bouranta et al., 2015; Bouranta et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2019; Drew et al., 2016; Drew et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2018; Fu et al., 2018; Han & Gao, 2020; Han & Gao, 2020; Sumaedi et al., 2016; Sumaedi et al., 2016) address differences in public service delivery and the level of satisfaction between rural and urban areas. (Zheng & An, 2015; Requena, 2016).
Researchers Fornell et al. (1996), Fornell and Larcker (1981a, 1981b, 1981c) propose studies using the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) by performing an analysis of the causal relationships between constructs of expected quality, perceived quality, perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty. Based on these studies, the present research proposes an innovative method of analysis of these constructs considering three dimensions where each is examined separately. Territorial and Road Planning, Municipal Services, and Environmental Management are proposed dimensions. The results provide specific information allowing to generation conclusions that contribute to decision-making by public managers.
Theorists Zheng and An (2015) such as and propose research in order to analyze the level of satisfaction of citizens through causal relationships in both rural and urban areas Requena (2016); however, there are no studies that calculate the differences in the intensity of causal relationships between SEM models in rural and urban areas, where each construct formed by key variables that act as determinants of the level of satisfaction and loyalty concerning the provision of public services.
This research trabajo addresses the GAP in studies on the differences of causal relationships of the proposed rural and urban model, starting from the constructs of expected and perceived quality, classified into three dimensions 1) Territorial planning and roads; 2) Municipal services; 3) Environmental management achieving the perceived value, as well as the level of satisfaction and citizen loyalty. In addition, this research is complemented by including moderating relationships in the perceived quality of the three proposed dimensions with which the influence on the behavior of the causal relationship between perceived value and satisfaction is analyzed.
This study aims to construct a multi-group analysis in which the differences between the causal relationships of citizens living in urban and rural areas are analyzed to estimate the level of satisfaction and loyalty concerning public services. (Chen et al., 2019; Chevtaeva et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2013; Murgante & Danese, 2011; Pascanu et al., 2016; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2017; Strosnider et al., 2017; Zhang & Zhu, 2020).
The results of this research serve as a reference element for territorial actors, which will constitute an essential tool for decision-making and the design of public policies improving the satisfaction and loyalty of citizens.
This research is configured as follows: Introduction, theoretical framework, materials and methods, study hypothesis, results obtained, multi-group analysis and, finally, a discussion section and conclusions of the study are proposed, followed by the bibliographic references used.
2 Theoretical Framework
The quality of public services is the basis for the proper functioning of cities. The literature has analyzed various quality studies in different areas, from tourist services in hotels and cruises to quality teaching services in the educational field. (Castillo Canalejo & Jimber del Río, 2018; del Río et al., 2017; Djunaidi et al., 2020; Hidalgo-Fernández et al., 2019; Jimber del Rio et al., 2020; López-sanz et al., 2021).
This research is based on a model of analysis of causal relationships between quality expected and perceived by citizens living in urban and rural territories to determine the perceived value and its relationship with satisfaction and loyalty to the administrations that manage it. The analysis of citizen satisfaction based on a detailed study of the dimensions of territorial planning, municipal services, and environmental management contributes to the existing literature. Therefore, to justify this study, it is essential to contextualize the three dimensions proposed in the theoretical model proposed at the end of this chapter.
In the first dimension, from the view of territorial planning, Burgos proposes an approach of supra municipal policies in public–private partnership that promotes economic activity to retain the population. It also analyses the Lestrelin et al. (2017) problems generated by population density and urban sprawl by examining the factors influencing population pressure through the design and implementation of integrated land use plans at the local level. For their part, Torre and Allet study urban development versus rural development with a territorial perspective, concluding that citizens living in rural areas manifest the scarce implementation of territorial planning strategies as opposed to urban areas. Suditu et al. (2014) Studied the importance of sustainable territorial plans to promote citizens’ quality of life.
The second dimension concerns the provision of public services. Studies such as those proposed by Zheng and An (2015) analyze the increase in inequalities between rural and urban areas in China, where they explain that there is a disparity in the level of satisfaction of citizens regarding access to municipal facilities and Sports. As a study method, a questionnaire was implemented with dichotomous variables related to participation in sports activities to measure the level of satisfaction with various factors, such as the season, distance, and the offer of sports activities, concluding that there are significant differences in the level of satisfaction of citizens in the practice of sports activities between rural and urban areas.
Concerning the third dimension proposed, Mellqvist et al. (2016), Giles-Corti et al. (2017), and Hooper et al. (2018) propose a study in which they identify the implementation of sustainable actions in parks considered green areas that include amplitude, nature, culture, and history, determining a composite index of the level of attraction of parks in urban areas.
It is relevant when choosing or recommending a territory as a place of residence for the implementation of environmental policies. Therefore, public institutions manage the creation of green areas by establishing standards that regulate maximum noise levels to avoid noise pollution; they also implement street and sidewalk cleaning actions, as well as the efficient management of non-hazardous solid waste (Newburn & Berck, 2006; Pascanu et al., 2016; Requena, 2016; Sørensen, 2014; Vieira et al., 2020).
Improving the quality of life in rural and urban areas depends to a large extent on the public policy decisions made by governments. The provision of public services has become a determining factor in public satisfaction (Burnett & Kogan, 2017; Dorman, 2014). In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in studies of quality expected and perceived by researchers in the social sciences. These studies make it possible to assess the quality of government management concerning efficiency in the provision of public services. The Urban Institute and the International City Management Association (1974) have carried out studies in collaboration with governments to identify the most critical factors in the management of green spaces, using quality, comfort, and safety as leading indicators (Institute & Association, 1974; Jimber del Rio et al., 2020; Maas et al., 2020).
Once the literature that includes the three dimensions addressed in this research has been reviewed and following the structure of the proposed model, theoretical contributions on studies of the perceived value of public services are proposed.
In recent years, the literature on perceived value as a precedent of citizen satisfaction has had different interpretations, one of the first definitions being that it is a value of judgment between benefits and costs, that is, the value for money. This research proposes an analysis of the perceived value of citizens, comparing the prices paid in terms of local taxes with the quality of public services received. In this study, Zeithaml (1988) and Ravald ad Grönro (1996) argue that perceived value is the path that defines satisfaction. (Hirmer & Guthrie, 2016; Kim & Park, 2017; Kim et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2020).
Finally, a review of the existing literature regarding the satisfaction and loyalty of citizens concerning the public services received is proposed.
Strosnider et al. (2017) investigate rural environments in developed countries, concluding that the level of citizen satisfaction in rural populations is high, which means there is an improvement in the population’s quality of life. On the other hand, Mouratidi (2020) studies the subjective well-being of rural versus urban environments. In its study, it concludes that, in developed countries, satisfaction levels in rural areas are high enough to create a higher level of subjective well-being, while in less developed countries, rural areas cannot compete with rural areas in terms of well-being because they have failed to build their economic and social potential. This research constitutes a guidance manual for political and social actors that, applied in the design and implementation of public policies in the provision of public services, generate a differentiating factor in citizen satisfaction and loyalty.
Academic as Castillo Canalejo and Jimber del Río (2018), Baró et al. (2017), Gautam (2020), Gross and Elshiewy (2019), Khadka (2020), Puška et al. (2021) and Ochoa Rico et al., (2022 propose reliable measures of analysis for the investigation of the perceived quality, which allows understanding the importance of promoting in the political actors the interest of improving the provision of public services in rural areas. Several rural development researchers with a territorial approach analyze satisfaction with the provision of public services as a factor for improving the quality of life (Baró et al., 2017; Le Roux, 2016; Ramkissoon et al., 2018; Suyanto et al., 2019; Tung et al., 2017).
3 Study Hypothesis
The variables used to measure the satisfaction and loyalty of citizens residing in rural and urban areas of Guayaquil, which will allow comparing the results of direct and moderate causal relationships are: 1) expected quality in territorial and road planning (EQTPR) 2) quality expected quality in the provision of municipal services (EQMS), 3) expected quality of citizen environmental management (EQCE), 4) perceived quality in territorial and road planning (PQTPR), 5) perceived quality in the provision of municipal services (PQMS), 6) perceived quality in citizen environmental management (PQEC), 7) perceived value (PV), 8) satisfaction (SATISFAC) and 9) loyalty (LOYALTY).
Once the model has been calculated for the two subsamples (rural area and urban area), a model has been built with the integration of these two samples, and a grouping variable (label) has been defined, which take the values 1 = urban citizen and 2 = rural citizen, then the multi-group analysis calculation has been performed.
The hypotheses proposed following the theoretical framework that justifies the use of the causal variables for the construction of satisfaction and loyalty are:
Hypotheses 1 (H1)
There are significant differences in the intensity of the relationship between urban citizens and rural citizens concerning the causal relationship: the perceived quality in territorial planning (PQTPR) directly and significantly moderates the relationship between the perceived value (PV) and citizen satisfaction (SATISFAC) (Un-Habitat, 2016).
Hypotheses 2 (H2)
There are significant differences in the intensity of the relationship between urban citizens and rural citizens concerning the causal relationship: the perceived quality in the provision of municipal services (PQMS) directly and significantly moderates the relationship between the perceived value in general (PV) and citizen satisfaction (SATISFAC) (Eades et al., 2020; Yukalang et al., 2018).
Hypotheses 3 (H3)
There are significant differences in the intensity of the relationship between urban citizens and rural citizens concerning the causal relationship: the perceived quality of environmental management (PQCE) directly and significantly moderates the relationship between the perceived value of the municipality (PV) and citizen satisfaction (SATISFAC)) (Lv et al., 2017).
Hypotheses 4 (H4)
There are significant differences in the intensity of the relationship between urban citizens and rural citizens concerning the causal relationship: The perceived value of citizens (PV) directly and significantly influences the general satisfaction of the citizen (SATISFAC) (Demographic predictors within local public administration, 2014).
Hypotheses 5 (H5)
There are significant differences in the intensity of the relationship between urban citizens and rural citizens concerning the causal relationship: citizen satisfaction (SATISFAC) positively and significantly influences citizen loyalty (LOYALTY) (Moyes et al., 2016). Figure 1 shows the hypotheses raised.
4 Materials and Methods
4.1 Instruments
A questionnaire containing five sections was carried out to analyze the variables that make up the constructs of the theoretical model proposed for rural and urban areas.
First: It proposes a comparative analysis between rural and urban in the constructs that address issues such as territorial planning and roads. The observed variables that provide information are pavements, organization, zoning, roads, traffic crossing, parking services, address information, public transport service, transport terminal services, general satisfaction of the total sum of planning services territorial and road.
Second: It proposes a comparative analysis between rural and urban constructs that address questions about the provision of municipal public services. The items that make up this dimension are quality/price relation concerning the quality of drinking water, garbage collection service and street cleaning, maintenance of parks and gardens, wastewater and sewage management, public lighting, conservation of structures, conservation of historical pieces, cultural activities, social and cultural facilities for public use, cemetery services, organization of social movements, fire services, municipal police services, sports services, veterinary public hospital services, general satisfaction of the total sum of municipal services received.
Third: It proposes a comparative analysis between rural and urban constructs that include data on satisfaction in the environmental management of the territory. The items or variables observed included: noise pollution, air pollution, creation of green areas, recycling points, general satisfaction of the total sum of environmental management services.
Fourth: It raises questions about the level of fidelity and sense of belonging concerning the place of residence. The questions that make up this section are: Would you recommend the services provided by the municipality? Would you recommend family members or friends who live outside the city to move to live there? Would you recommend the city as a tourist place? Would you recommend voting for mayor? Would you vote for mayor again?
Fifth: It refers to the sociodemographic profile of the surveyed population.
Figure 2 shows the workflow scheme followed by the multi-group analysis.
In Table 1 justifies the items that make up the latent variables of the proposed model.
4.2 Sample
For the study that includes the urban area, the data collection was carried out in the city of Guayaquil in a metropolitan area called Tarqui. For the study of the rural area, the data collection was carried out in the Tenguel area (Fig. 3).
The urban parish of Tarqui has a large area with a high population density; a large part of the city’s business sector is concentrated here, which has generated opportunities for economic dynamism. On the other hand, Tenguel is a largely agricultural rural parish and the second rural parish with the largest territorial extension and population density in Guayaquil.
The universe of study for the urban area is made up of 1,050,826 inhabitants, which corresponds to 38.9% of the total population of Guayaquil. A simple random sample of 528 households was calculated, achieving approaches with 521 families, where they were surveyed one representative from each family. To collect the data, we collaborated with a group of previously trained and qualified interviewers who carried out the surveys from October 5 to 11, 2020.
The rural area studied has around 13,000 inhabitants. A simple random sample of 450 households was calculated for research purposes, managing to survey 428 families, analyzing each home. Qualified interviewers conducted the surveys from April 3 to 7, 2021.
The sample population was informed about the academic purposes of the surveys and the object of study, and anonymity was guaranteed. Verbal consent was requested to participate in the study. The questionnaire was delivered to residents of Tarqui (urban area), where 521 valid surveys were obtained, and Tenguel (rural area), where 428 useful surveys were received, with a margin of error of 5% and a confidence level of 95%.
The results section groups the validation calculations for observed variables and latent variables. Once the proposed model has been validated, the hypotheses of the causal relationships of the model are tested.
Table 2 shows the socio-demographic profile of the sample. There is a proximity between the number of men and women surveyed in urban and rural areas, with a higher proportion being under 30 years of age with secondary education.
The basic descriptions of the observed variables that make up each latent variable (anexo). From the experimental values, a standout finding is how the citizens residing in the rural area of Tenguel have higher expectations concerning territorial planning, provision of municipal services, and environmental management than the urban citizens of Guayaquil.
5 Results
5.1 Validation
The proposed model has been built based on the latent and observed variables and the theoretical review. Once the questionnaire was validated, Warlp-PLS was used to estimate it.
The individual reliability of the observed variables, the latent variables, and the convergent validity have been validated, and the model’s goodness of fit has been calculated.
Once the validations have been carried out, the differences in the causal relationships between the rural and urban samples are contrasted and analyzed by including restrictions in the estimated model (multi-group analysis).
To check the validity and reliability of the items (Carmines & Zeller, 1979), Collinearity was analyzed. It was verified that the variance value of the inflation factor (VIF) is more significant than five. The results did not show collinearity in the variables used for each latent variable. Following Fornell and Larcker, (1981a) and Barclay et al., (1995), the individual reliability of the factorial loads of the articles is confirmed. Based on the results of these calculations, the measurement model was considered valid and reliable, which means that the structural model can be analyzed.
To find out if the observed items strictly and adequately measure the latent variable or construct of which they are part, the composite reliability values are studied, as well as Cronbach’s Alpha, verifying if they are more significant than/equal to 0.7 (Table 3) (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1978).
Convergent validity is evaluated with the mean–variance extracted (AVE). Values greater than 0.5 demonstrate convergent validity (Table 4) (b, c; Fornell & Larcker, 1981a).
To verify the goodness of fit of the proposed model (Table 5), the following measures were calculated (the threshold values of goodness are shown in the right column).
After having analyzed all the latent variables, considering their validity, and an adequate adjustment, it can be confirmed that the results obtained are reliable and applicable, so the multi-group analysis is estimated.
6 Multi-group Analysis
A multigroup analysis has been carried out to compare the results of the causal relationships with the variables that build citizen satisfaction and loyalty. The comparison and analysis process shows that satisfaction and loyalty levels when choosing a residence are different between rural and urban areas.
The proposed multi-group analysis calculates the causal relationships by segmenting the sample, defining a label variable, identifying whether the respondent belongs to the urban or rural area. Figure 4 shows the values of factor loadings of the causal relationships for the models calculated in rural and urban areas. The limiting probability of each one is used to validate the importance of the relationships between the latent variables of the proposed model.
The restricted latent growth method has been used for the multigroup analysis, the same method applied in complete latent growth analysis. Still, we should consider that it is limited to the sub-sample formed by the rural and urban groups that are compared here. The remarkable thing about the restricted latent growth method is that the subsamples analyzed by the standard error methods of Satterthwaite are not more significant than the subsample it explores.
Table 6 shows, on the one hand, the absolute latent growth coefficients and the limiting probability of the causal relationships of the model, and, on the other hand, the significant differences in causal relationships that have not been hypothesized in this study are also observed.
Regarding the hypotheses raised and the results obtained in the contract, we can make the following statements:
The H1 hypothesis is confirmed with a positive coefficient (0.060) and a limit probability of 0.002; it indicates differences in the causal relationships between urban and rural citizens. This hypothesis proposes a moderating relationship of the causal variable territorial planning and roads on the relationship between perceived value and satisfaction. The H3 hypothesis is confirmed, with a positive coefficient (0.011) and a limit probability of 0.003, indicating differences in the causal relationships between urban and rural citizens. This hypothesis proposes a moderating relationship of the causal variable perceived quality of environmental management on the causal relationship between perceived value and citizen satisfaction. Hypothesis H4 with a positive structural coefficient (0.420) and a limiting probability lower than 0.001 indicates differences between the results of rural and urban citizens in the causal relationship perceived value-satisfaction. H5 hypothesis is confirmed with a positive structural coefficient (0.583) and a limit probability lower than 0.001, showing significant differences of opinion between urban and rural citizens regarding the causal relationship between satisfaction and fidelity.
Figure 5 shows the model calculated with the differences in the causal relationships between urban and rural citizens’ intensities.
7 Discussion
In the scientific literature, we find several studies that analyze satisfaction in municipal services that address the issue using different methodologies and perspectives. However, we did not find any study that compares through structural equation models (SEM) two theoretical models of direct causal relationships and moderators between citizens residing in urban and rural areas. This multi-group analysis focuses on detecting the differences in the intensity of the causal relationships and the level of influence (determined by the factorial loads) of the independent variables that comprise the constructs proposed in the model.
Therefore, we must differentiate between the intensity of the causal relationships between the constructs (whether urban or rural) and the average values of the independent variables that make up each construct.
From a general point of view and referring to the differences in intensities between causal relationships in urban and rural areas, we can affirm, because of the results obtained, that there are significant differences in the intensity of causal relationships perceived by urban citizens concerning rural citizens. That is, citizens living in urban areas have higher expectations and perceived quality of public services than citizens living in rural areas, coinciding in part with the studies of Mellqvist et al. (2016), Giles-Corti et al. (2017) and Hooper et al. (2010).
Likewise, the impact generated by the relationship between perceived value and satisfaction differs between urban and rural areas. The level of loyalty and belonging in the territory is higher in urban populations. The provision of public services in the metropolitan area of Guayaquil generates greater satisfaction than in the rural area. Following the literature trend, urban citizens have a higher level of territorial belonging, although approached with a novel methodology in this type of study (Ramkissoon et al., 2018; Suyanto et al., 2019; Tung et al., 2017).
This work addresses the GAP of analyzing the intensity of causal relationships between constructs, comparing two identical proposed theoretical models in which the difference between urban and rural areas in the perception of quality in three specific dimensions is calculated independently: territorial planning, municipal services, and average management environmental. The results let us know the citizen’s perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty.
Likewise, through a multi-group analysis, it is established that there are differences in the ranges of citizen satisfaction with the provision of public services and loyalty to choose the territory as a place of residence. This research highlights the importance of establishing heterogeneous public policies differentiating between rural and urban areas(Chen et al., 2019; Chevtaeva et al., 2021; Strosnider et al., 2017; Zhang & Zhu, 2020). Citizen satisfaction studies provide relevant information to design and plan strategies that generate loyalty, territorial roots, or a sense of belonging.
This study adds two innovative components. On the one hand, moderating constructs of the causal relationship between perceived value and satisfaction have been proposed, establishing differences in the level of moderating influence between the models in urban and rural areas. Furthermore, on the other hand, the multi-group analysis presented in this research raises differences between urban and rural causal models. (Rainero & Modarelli, 2020; Sun et al., 2020).
8 Conclusions
Citizens living in rural Tenguel have higher expectations than urban citizens of Guayaquil regarding territorial planning in aspects such as roads, sidewalks, traffic crossings, public transport, parking, address information, and transport terminals. The average values obtained in the model constructs, we can affirm that the average of the responses of the urban population is 5.5 and that of the rural population is 6.8. This difference is because the rural population of Guayaquil feels less affected by the lack of territorial planning, inadequate infrastructure, and the few commercial areas that affect traffic and the lower population density. However, the perception of urban citizens, after experiencing the quality of territorial planning, exceeds with an average of 4.27 the perception of rural citizens with an average of 3.7, reaching the lowest level of perceived quality in parking service and address information.(Hinderer et al., 2018; Jittrapirom et al., 2020; Makinde et al., 2016; Takatori et al., 2019).
The quality expected in the rural population’s study dimension of municipal public service delivery is higher than that of the urban population. The average response to the expectations of public services in the metropolitan area of Guayaquil is 5.6, while in rural areas, it is 6.8. Guayaquil’s rural populations are more optimistic about their expectations regarding municipal services. These results maintain the trend with the quality dimension expected in territorial planning. On the other hand, the perception of urban citizens after experiencing the quality of municipal services, is higher than that of rural citizens. The services of drinking water, sewerage, garbage collection, cleaning of parks and gardens, public lighting, preservation of historical and cultural structures, cemetery, social activities, firefighting, municipal police, sports areas, and veterinary services exceed with an average of 4.14 the perception of rural citizens with an average of 3.90 reaching the lowest level of perceived quality in firefighting and police services municipal. All these aspects can be improved in both rural and urban areas. (Azimi et al., 2019; Kolesnik, 2019; Lacombe & Cossette, 2018; Md & Ahasan, 2020; Solís-Alvarado et al., 2019).
A notable difference is that the expected quality in the environmental management dimension is higher in rural areas, with an average of 6.7, compared to urban areas, with an average of 5.4. The results obtained from the rural population reveal higher expectations, the perception of rural citizens after experiencing the quality in the levels of control of noise pollution, air, green areas, and recycling points, surpassing with an average of 3.99 the perception of the quality of urban citizens with an average of 3.85 reaching the lowest level in the perception of air quality and recycling points. (Albert & Decato, 2017; Nieuwenhuijsen et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).
Therefore, it is concluded that rural citizens’ expectation level is higher than the urban level of the three proposed study dimensions. However, the perceived quality in the urban population’s territorial planning and municipal service delivery is higher after experiencing the service. On the other hand, the rural population perceives and rates the quality of environmental management of public managers slightly higher. In general, citizens’ expectations in the three dimensions proposed for this study are high. Even so, the perception of services maintains a trend of low average scores, influencing the causal relationship between perceived value satisfaction (Eades et al., 2020; Yukalang et al., 2018).
The quality expected in the rural population’s study dimension of municipal public service delivery is higher than that of the urban population. The average response to the expectations of public services in the metropolitan area of Guayaquil is 5.6, while in rural areas, it is 6.8. Guayaquil’s rural populations are more optimistic about their expectations regarding municipal services. These results maintain the trend with the quality dimension expected in territorial planning. On the other hand, the perception of urban citizens after experiencing the quality of municipal services, is higher than that of rural citizens. The services of drinking water, sewerage, garbage collection, cleaning of parks and gardens, public lighting, preservation of historical and cultural structures, cemetery, social activities, firefighting, municipal police, sports areas, and veterinary services exceed with an average of 4.14 the perception of rural citizens with an average of 3.90 reaching the lowest level of perceived quality in firefighting and police services municipal. All these aspects can be improved in both rural and urban areas. (Azimi et al., 2019; Kolesnik, 2019; Lacombe & Cossette, 2018; Md & Ahasan, 2020; Solís-Alvarado et al., 2019).
A notable difference is that the expected quality in the environmental management dimension is higher in rural areas, with an average of 6.7, compared to urban areas, with an average of 5.4. The results obtained from the rural population reveal higher expectations, the perception of rural citizens after experiencing the quality in the levels of control of noise pollution, air, green areas, and recycling points, surpassing with an average of 3.99 the perception of the quality of urban citizens with an average of 3.85 reaching the lowest level in the perception of air quality and recycling points. (Albert & Decato, 2017; Nieuwenhuijsen et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).
Therefore, it is concluded that rural citizens’ expectation level is higher than the urban level of the three proposed study dimensions. However, the perceived quality in the urban population’s territorial planning and municipal service delivery is higher after experiencing the service. On the other hand, the rural population perceives and rates the quality of environmental management of public managers slightly higher. In general, citizens’ expectations in the three dimensions proposed for this study are high. Even so, the perception of services maintains a trend of low average scores, influencing the causal relationship between perceived value satisfaction (Eades et al., 2020; Yukalang et al., 2018).
The perceived value, measured as the willingness of citizens to pay taxes for services received in the urban area of Guayaquil, has an average of 4.48, with higher values in terminal transport services, garbage collection, and cleaning of parks and gardens, with lower values in cemetery service and sports activities. The rural population shows a perceived average value of 3.70, with higher values in drinking water service and garbage collection and lower values in parking service, social facilities, firefighting, sports services, and veterinary services. The results demonstrate the perceived value differences between rural and urban citizens. Each area of study has different needs to improve quality of life (Ahmed et al., 2020; Brown, 2018; Li et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Pedersen et al., 2018; Rashid & Pandit, 2019).
The level of overall satisfaction in the three proposed dimensions, territorial and road planning, the provision of municipal services, and the management of environmental policies, show an average value of 5.24 in urban areas and an average of 4.86 in rural areas. As for the average level of loyalty and rootedness or sense of belonging in the territory, the urban population is 5.01, and the rural population is 4.61. In general, the constructs of perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty of urban citizens are positively related, maintaining average values higher than those of rural citizens, which are also positively related (Armis & Kanegae, 2020; Buys & Miller, 2012; Gendel-Guterman & Billig, 2021; James & John, 2021; Psomas, 2020; Tsai, 2017).
Citizen expectations are high in all the dimensions proposed in the urban and rural models. The causal relationships analyzed are related to solid intensity. The best-qualified services in the urban area are those related to spatial planning and roads. The highest level of satisfaction in rural areas corresponds to the benefits of environmental management, which generates loyalty to local authorities, confirming the vote in future elections and recommending the rural territory as a tourist site (Abubakar, 2016; Abubakar, 2016; Dempsey et al., 2011; Ghisellini et al., 2016; Jin et al., 2020; Lee & Lee, 2014; Murray et al., 1998; Suditu et al., 2014).
This study was carried out in an urban and rural sector; the samples were taken in specific places, becoming a limitation since it is only applicable to these territories. For future research, we propose to study other regions that allow comparisons in satisfaction levels. This research allows future studies to implement techniques to determine satisfaction and loyalty rates to establish relationships and comparisons.
From the point of view of the moderating causal relationship, which proposes that the perceived quality of municipal services influences the perceived value-satisfaction relationship, it shows a slight and insignificant increase in the moderating influence in rural areas compared to urban areas. This means that the perception of the quality of the municipality’s public services influences the rural population more intensely.
Our research confirms the difference in intensity in the proposed causal relationships between urban and rural models. The relationship between constructs is positive and significant. However, the intensity of influence between constructs in urban areas is more significant than in rural areas. This is due to the scores obtained in the observed variables that comprise each construct. Although the intensity of the influences between constructs is intense in the two models compared, urban citizens perceive a higher quality in the provision of municipal services and territorial planning. On the other hand, the rural population perceives environmental management with a higher level of quality.
Public administrations, municipal managers, and organizations that provide different public services have a reference tool in this study since knowing the differences in rural and urban areas allows them to implement adequate and well-directed policies to meet the needs of citizens (Sharma & Singh, 2021).
This study was carried out in an urban and rural sector; the samples were taken in specific places, becoming a limitation since it is only applicable to these territories. For future research, we propose to study other regions that allow comparisons in satisfaction levels. This research opens the way to future studies to implement techniques to determine satisfaction and loyalty rates to establish relationships and comparisons.
Data Availability
Availability of data and materials in the editorial manager.
References
Abubakar, I. R. (2016). Quality dimensions of public water services in Abuja, Nigeria. Utilities Policy, 38, 43–51.
Ahmed, M. F., Mokhtar, M. B., & Alam, L. (2020). Factors influencing people’s willingness to participate in sustainable water resources management in Malaysia. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 31, 100737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2020.100737
Albert, D. G., & Decato, S. N. (2017). Acoustic and seismic ambient noise measurements in urban and rural areas. Applied Acoustics, 119, 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2016.12.015
Armis, R., & Kanegae, H. (2020). Understanding of citizens ‘loyalty in city regeneration: Post-mining communities in Sawahlunto. West Sumatera., 2, 77–91.
Azimi, S., Azhdary Moghaddam, M., & Hashemi Monfared, S. A. (2019). Prediction of annual drinking water quality reduction based on groundwater resource index using the artificial neural network and fuzzy clustering. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 220, 6–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2018.10.010
Barclay, D., Higgins, C., & Thompson, R. (n.d.). (1995). The Partial least squares (PLS) approach to causal modelling: Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. Ontario: Walter de Guyter.
Baró, F., Gómez-Baggethun, E., & Haase, D. (2017). Ecosystem service bundles along the urban-rural gradient: Insights for landscape planning and management. Ecosystem Services, 24, 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.02.021
Bello, M. U., Martin, D., & Kasim, R. (2017). A review of effects of quality municipal services on citizen satisfaction in Malaysian municipal council: A content analysis. Global Journal of Research and Review. https://doi.org/10.21767/2393-8854.100028
Bergsdal, H. (2009). Dynamic modeling and analysis of stocks and flows in building systems. In Department of hydraulic and environmental engineering: Vol. PhD.
Bouranta, N., Siskos, Y., & Tsotsolas, N. (2015). Measuring police officer and citizen satisfaction: Comparative analysis. Policing an International Journal of Police Strategies & Management., 38, 705–721.
Brown, B. R. (2018). The dimensions of pet-owner loyalty and the relationship with communication, trust, commitment and perceived value. Veterinary Sciences, 5(4), 95. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci5040095
Bucaite Vilke, J., & Vilkas, M. (2018). Discussing municipal performance alternatives: Public perceptions of municipal services delivery in Lithuania. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 31(4), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-01-2017-0011
Burnett, C. M., & Kogan, V. (2017). The politics of potholes: Service quality and retrospective voting in local elections. Journal of Politics, 79(1), 302–314. https://doi.org/10.1086/688736
Buys, L., & Miller, E. (2012). Residential satisfaction in inner urban higher-density Brisbane, Australia: Role of dwelling design, neighbourhood and neighbours. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 55(3), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2011.597592
Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Assessing reliability. Assessing Reliability Reliability and Validity Assessment, 17, 37–49.
Cartenì, A., & Henke1, I. (2017). Public Transport Quality and Travel Experience: The Italian Case Study. European Scientific Journal.
Castillo Canalejo, A. M., & Jimber del Río, J. A. (2018). Quality, satisfaction and loyalty indices. Journal of Place Management and Development, 11(4), 428–446. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPMD-05-2017-0040
Chang, E., Park, K., & Choi, Y. (2016). Models and application of firefighting vulnerability. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 218, 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.04.018
Chen, N., Hall, C. M., Yu, K., & Qian, C. (2019). Environmental satisfaction, residential satisfaction, and place attachment: The cases of long-term residents in rural and urban areas in China. Sustainability, 11(22), 6439. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11226439
Chevtaeva, N., Kachanova, E., Ruchkin, A., & Kukhar, V. (2021). Improving communication between citizens and authorities in the process of providing municipal services in urban and rural areas. In E3S Web of conferences, vol. 254. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202125410026
del Río, J. A. J., Agüera, F. O., Cuadra, S. M., & Morales, P. C. (2017). Satisfaction in border tourism: An analysis with structural equations. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 23(2), 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2017.02.001
Demographic Predictors within Local Public Administration. (2014). Annals of the University of Oradea Economic Science, 24(2).
Dempsey, N., Bramley, G., Power, S., & Brown, C. (2011). The social dimension of sustainable development: Defining urban social sustainability. Sustainable Development, 19(5), 289–300.
DiStefano, C., Liu, J., Jiang, N., & Shi, D. (2018). Examination of the weighted root mean square residual: Evidence for trustworthiness? Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 25(3), 453–466.
Djunaidi, M., Diansari, B. N., Alghofari, A. K., & Prasetyo, H. (2020). The role of tourism logistics to develop tourist loyalty in rural areas tourism. International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering Research. https://doi.org/10.30534/ijeter/2020/70892020
Dorman, S. R. (2014). Citizenship in Africa: The politics of belonging. Routledge handbook of global citizenship studies (pp. 183–193). Routledge.
Drew, J., Dollery, B., & Kortt, M. A. (2016). Can’t get no satisfaction? the association between community satisfaction and population size for Victoria. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 75(1), 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8500.12117
Dwimirnani, P., Karimi, K., & Palaiologou, G. (2017). Space after dark: Measuring the impact of public lighting at night on visibility, movement, and spatial configuration in urban parks. In Proceedings-11th international space syntax symposium, SSS 2017.
Eades, P., Kusch-Brandt, S., Heaven, S., & Banks, C. J. (2020). Estimating the generation of gardenwaste in England and the differences between rural and urban areas. Resources, 9(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9010008
Edwards, J. (2009). The transformation of municipal services: Towards quality in the public sector. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 2(531), 3–16.
Ekins, P., Domenech, T., Drummond, P., Bleischwitz, R., Hughes, N., & Lotti, L. (2019). The circular economy: What, why, how and where. In Background background paper for an OECD/EC workshop on 5 July 2019 within the workshop series “Managing environmental and energy transitions for regions and cities” Paris.
Esmaeily, H., Peyman, N., Taghipour, A., KHorashadizadeh, F., & Mahdizadeh, M. (2014). A structural equation model to predict the social-cognitive determinants related to physical activity in Iranian women with diabetes mellitus. Journal of Research in Health Sciences, 14(4), 296–302.
Fahim, A. A. M. A., & Khalil, E. E. (2009). Influence of [IEQ] requirements on energy consumptions in residential buildings. In 7th international energy conversion engineering conference. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2009-4623
Fauzi, A. A., & Sheng, M. L. (2020). The digitalization of micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs): An institutional theory perspective. Journal of Small Business Management, 1–26.
Fong, J. R. M., Reza, J. R. D., Uribe, V. R., García, A. S. M., & Alcaraz, J. L. G. (2020). Relationship among green production benefits: A causal model. Research in Computing Science, 149, 13–21.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981a). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and. pdf. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D., Anderson, E. W., Cha, J., & Bryant, B. E. (1996). The American customer satisfaction index: Nature, purpose, and findings. Journal of Marketing, 60(4), 7–18.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981b). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Sage Publications Sage.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981c). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382. https://doi.org/10.2307/3150980
Fu, X. M., Zhang, J. H., & Chan, F. T. S. (2018). Determinants of loyalty to public transit: A model integrating satisfaction-loyalty theory and expectation-confirmation theory. Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice, 113, 476–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.05.012
Gautam, S. (2020). Impact of bridge construction for improved livelihood in rural area. Nepalese Journal of Development and Rural Studies, 17, 112–122. https://doi.org/10.3126/njdrs.v17i0.35029
Gendel-Guterman, H., & Billig, M. (2021). Increasing citizen satisfaction with municipal services: The function of intangible factors. International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 18(2), 171–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12208-020-00267-y
Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., & Ulgiati, S. (2016). A review on circular economy: The expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems. Journal of Cleaner Production, 114, 11–32.
Giles-Corti, B., Kerr, J., & Pratt, M. (2017). Contributing to helping to achieve the UN sustainable development goals: Truly shifting from niche to norm. In Preventive medicine, vol. 103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.08.021.
Gross, E., & Elshiewy, O. (2019). Choice and quantity demand for improved and unimproved public water sources in rural areas: Evidence from Benin. Journal of Rural Studies, 69, 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.02.021
Han, H., & Gao, Q. (2020). Does welfare participation improve life satisfaction? Evidence from panel data in rural China. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(5), 1795–1822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00157-z
Hendrarini, H., Rahayu, E. S., Sunarsono, R. J., & Soedarto, T. (2018). The influence of ihsan attitude and economic condition to farmer household food security. In IOP conference series: Earth and environmental science, vol. 142, No (1), p. 12074.
Hidalgo-Fernández, A., Hernández-Rojas, R., del Río, J. A. J., & Casas-Rosal, J. C. (2019). Tourist motivations and satisfaction in the archaeological ensemble of Madinat Al-Zahra. Sustainability, 11(5), 1380. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051380
Hinderer, H., Stegmueller, J., Schmidt, J., Sommer, J., & Lucke, J. (2018). Acceptance of autonomous vehicles in suburban public transport an empircal study on requirements and prerequisites expected by inhabitants. In 2018 IEEE international conference on engineering, technology and innovation (Ice/Itmc).
Hirmer, S., & Guthrie, P. (2016). Identifying the needs of communities in rural Uganda: A method for determining the ‘user-perceived value’of rural electrification initiatives. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 66, 476–486.
Hooper, P., Boruff, B., Beesley, B., Badland, H., & Giles-Corti, B. (2018). Testing spatial measures of public open space planning standards with walking and physical activity health outcomes: Findings from the Australian national liveability study. Landscape and Urban Planning, 171, 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.12.001
Iacobucci, D. (2010). Structural equations modeling: Fit indices, sample size, and advanced topics. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20(1), 90–98.
Institute, U., & Association, I. C. M. (1974). Measuring the effectiveness of basic municipal services: Initial report. International City Management Association.
James, O., & John, P. (2021). Testing Hirschman’s exit, voice, and loyalty model: Citizen and provider responses to decline in public health services. International Public Management Journal, 24(3), 378–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2021.1878314
Jati, A. W., Ulum, I., & Utomo, C. (2019). Tax Avoidance, Corporate Governance dan Kinerja Keuangan Perusahaan yang. Jurnal Reviu Akuntansi Dan Keuangan, 9(2), 214–225.
Jimber del Rio, J. A., Hernández-Rojas, R. D., Vergara-Romero, A., & Dancausa Millán, M. (2020). Loyalty in heritage tourism: The case of Córdoba and its four world heritage sites. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(23), 8950.
Jin, Z., Zeng, S., Cao, C., Ma, H., & Sun, D. (2020). Impacts of pollution abatement projects on happiness: An exploratory study in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 274, 122869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122869
Jittrapirom, P., Marchau, V., van der Heijden, R., & Meurs, H. (2020). Future implementation of mobility as a service (MaaS): Results of an international Delphi study. Travel Behaviour and Society, 21, 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2018.12.004
Khadka, G. (2020). Prominence of improved cook stove (ICS) in rural area: end-users perspective. Nepalese Journal of Development and Rural Studies, 17, 20–25. https://doi.org/10.3126/njdrs.v17i0.34949
Khan, M. M. H., Zanuzdana, A., & Kraemer, A. (2013). Levels, trends and disparities in public-health-related indicators among reproductive-age women in Bangladesh by urban-rural and richest-poorest groups, 1993–2011. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e75261. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075261
Kim, K.-H., & Park, D.-B. (2017). Relationships among perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty: Community-based ecotourism in Korea. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 34(2), 171–191.
Kim, Y. H., Kim, D. J., & Jai, T.-M.C. (2016). One destination and two events: A comparative analysis on perceived value, satisfaction, and intention to revisit. Event Management, 20(3), 327–339.
Kjøller, C. P. (2012). Managing green spaces of the deceased: Characteristics and dynamics of Danish cemetery administrations. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11(3), 339–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2012.02.002
Kolesnik, T. (2019). Regional programming as an effective tool for sustainable rural development. Economy Finances Management Topical Issues of Science and Practical Activity 3(43). https://doi.org/10.37128/2411-4413-2019-3-5
Kruger, L. G. (2019). Assistance to firefighters program: Distribution of fire grant funding (updated). In Firefighter assistance grants and funding.
Kumar, D. S., & Purani, K. (2018). Model specification issues in PLS-SEM: Illustrating linear and non-linear models in hospitality services context. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 9, 338–353.
Lacombe, M. C., & Cossette, B. (2018). The role of public health in the development of a collaborative agreement with rural and semi-urban partners in cases of severe domestic squalor and hoarding. Community Mental Health Journal, 54(6), 766–772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-017-0192-x
le roux, S. (2016). Ecosystem services and urban planning. Newdist.
Lee, J., & Lee, H. (2014). Developing and validating a citizen-centric typology for smart city services. Government Information Quarterly, 31, S93–S105.
Lestrelin, G., Augusseau, X., David, D., Bourgoin, J., Lagabrielle, E., Lo Seen, D., & Degenne, P. (2017). Collaborative landscape research in Reunion Island: Using spatial modelling and simulation to support territorial foresight and urban planning. Applied Geography, 78, 66–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.11.003
Li, J., Pan, Q., Peng, Y., Feng, T., Liu, S., Cai, X., Zhong, C., Yin, Y., & Lai, W. (2020). Perceived quality of urban wetland parks: A second-order factor structure equation modeling. Sustainability, 12(17), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12177204
Liu, S., Gao, B., Gallivan, M., & Gong, Y. (2020). Free add-on services and perceived value in competitive environments: Evidence from online hotel reviews. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 90, 102611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102611
López-sanz, J. M., Penelas-leguía, A., Gutiérrez-rodríguez, P., & Cuesta-valiño, P. (2021). Sustainable development and consumer behavior in rural tourism—the importance of image and loyalty for host communities. Sustainability (switzerland), 13(9), 4763. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094763
Lv, K., Mosoni, G., Wang, M., Zheng, X., & Sun, Y. (2017). The image of the 2010 world expo: Residents’ perspective. Engineering Economics, 28(2), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.28.2.3048
Ma, Y., Koondhar, M. A., Liu, S., Wang, H., & Kong, R. (2020). Perceived value influencing the household waste sorting behaviors in rural China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6093. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176093
Maas, S., Attard, M., & Caruana, M. A. (2020). Assessing spatial and social dimensions of shared bicycle use in a Southern European island context: The case of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice, 140, 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2020.08.003
Makinde, J. T., Hassan, A. O., & Taiwo, A. O. (2016). Theory, principle and practice of local governance in Nigeria. The Journal of Developing Areas, 50(1), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2016.0013
Maksum, A., Lubis, A., & Muda, I. (2021). The Linearity of Oil Palm Plantations Owned by State-Owned Enterprises and Private Oil Palm Plantations to Production using the PLS Warp Application Approach. In Journal of physics: conference series, vol. 1899, No (1), p. 12065.
Md, S. A., & Ahasan, R. (2020). Effects of solar energy use on rural community: a study of Boyarjapha village in Paikgachha upazila. In 3rd international conference on advances in civil engineering, 21–23 December 2016, CUET, Chittagong, Bangladesh. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/p4zv6
Mellqvist, H., Søderkvist Kristensen, L., & Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C. (2016). Participatory green structure planning for linking urban and rural landscapes-a case study from Ronneby, Sweden. NA, 28(3).
Morrow, D. L., & Conger, S. (2021). Assessing reciprocal relationships in PLS-SEM: An illustration based on a job crafting study. Data Analysis Perspectives Journal, 2(1), 1–5.
Mouratidis, K. (2020). Commute satisfaction, neighborhood satisfaction, and housing satisfaction as predictors of subjective well-being and indicators of urban livability. Travel Behaviour and Society, 21, 265–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2020.07.006
Moyes, D., Cano-Kourouklis, M., & Scott, J. (2016). Testing the three Rs model of service quality. TQM Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/TQM-02-2015-0026
Murgante, B., & Danese, M. (2011). Urban versus rural: The decrease of agricultural areas and the development of urban zones analyzed with spatial statistics. International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Information Systems, 2(2), 16–28. https://doi.org/10.4018/jaeis.2011070102
Murray, A. T., Davis, R., Stimson, R. J., & Ferreira, L. (1998). Public transportation access. Transportation Research Part D Transport and Environment, 3(5), 319–328.
Newburn, D. A., & Berck, P. (2006). Modeling suburban and rural-residential development beyond the urban fringe. Land Economics, 82(4), 481–499. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.82.4.481
Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Khreis, H., Triguero-Mas, M., Gascon, M., & Dadvand, P. (2016). Fifty shades of green: Pathway to healthy urban living. Epidemiology. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000549
Nigro, H. O., & Císaro, S. E. G. (2016). The citizen satisfaction index: Adapting the model in Argentine cities. Cities, 56, 85–90.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1978). Psychometric testing. McGraw-Hill.
Ochoa Rico, M. S., Vergara-Romero, A., Subia, J. F. R., & Del Río, J. A. J. (2022). Study of citizen satisfaction and loyalty in the urban area of Guayaquil: Perspective of the quality of public services applying structural equations. PLoS ONE, 17(2), e0263331.
Pascanu, I., Hutu, S., Cota, A., Capraru, O., & Pop, R. (2016). Urban versus rural: Does the environment count in child development? Environmental Engineering and Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2016.076
Pedersen, L., Masroor, N., Cooper, K., Patrick, A., Razjouyan, F., Doll, M., Stevens, M. P., & Bearman, G. (2018). Barriers and perceptions of environmental cleaning: An environmental services perspective. American Journal of Infection Control, 46(12), 1406–1407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2018.06.004
Prasilowati, S. L., Suyanto, S., Safitri, J., & Wardani, M. K. (2021). The impact of service quality on customer satisfaction: The role of price. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business, 8(1), 451–455.
Psomas, E. (2020). Determining the impact of service quality on citizens’ satisfaction and the role of citizens’ demographics. The case of the Greek citizen’s service centers. TQM Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/TQM-12-2019-0274
Puška, A., Pamucar, D., Stojanović, I., Cavallaro, F., Kaklauskas, A., & Mardani, A. (2021). Examination of the sustainable rural tourism potential of the brčko district of bosnia and herzegovina using a fuzzy approach based on group decision making. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020583
Rainero, C., & Modarelli, G. (2020). The attractive power of rural destinations and a synergistic community cooperative approach: A “tourismability” case. Sustainability, 12(17), 7233.
Ramkissoon, H., Mavondo, F., & Uysal, M. (2018). Social involvement and park citizenship as moderators for quality-of-life in a national park. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(3), 341–361.
Rashid, M., & Pandit, D. (2019). Determining the provision of wastewater management infrastructure in rural India from the local communities’ perspectives. Water Science and Technology, 79(3), 489–500. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2019.074
Rasoolimanesh, S. M., Ringle, C. M., Jaafar, M., & Ramayah, T. (2017). Urban vs. rural destinations: Residents’ perceptions, community participation and support for tourism development. Tourism Management, 60, 147–158.
Ravald, A., & Grönroos, C. (1996). The value concept and relationship marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 30, 19–30.
Realyvásquez, A., Maldonado-Macías, A. A., García-Alcaraz, J. L., & Blanco-Fernández, J. (2015). Effects of organizational macroergonomic compatibility elements over manufacturing systems’ performance. Procedia Manufacturing, 3, 5715–5722.
Rebaï, N. (2019). The “lifeshed” as a new scale of production of sustainable urban-rural territories. Insights from the Ecuadorian Andes. Urbano, 22(39), 8–25. https://doi.org/10.22320/07183607.2019.22.39.01
Requena, F. (2016). Rural-urban living and level of economic development as factors in subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 128(2), 693–708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1051-1
Riduansah, D. S., Rochaida, E., Heksarini, A., & Permana, M. (n.d.) (2021). The role of job satisfaction mediation to the relationship between compensation and performance.
Sánchez-Sánchez, M. D., De-Pablos-Heredero, C., & Montes-Botella, J. L. (2020). A behaviour model for cultural tourism: Loyalty to destination. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 1–18.
Sharma, S., & Singh, M. (2021). Impact of brand selection on brand loyalty with special reference to personal care products: A rural urban comparison. International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, 22(2), 287–308. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijicbm.2021.113017
Sholeh, M. S., & Jakaria, R. B. (2021). Partial least square in analyzing the influence of service quality, facilities and price on customer. Procedia of Engineering and Life Science, 1(2).
Sholihin, M., & Ratmono, D. (2021). Analisis SEM-PLS dengan WarpPLS 7.0 untuk Hubungan Nonlinier dalam Penelitian Sosial dan Bisnis. Penerbit Andi.
Solís-Alvarado, Y., Mendiola-Mora, A., Sanvicente-Sánchez, H., Galván-Benitez, R., Román-Brito, J., & Mendoza-Betanzos, R. (2019). Drinking water: An overview of the human right to safe drinking water in Mexico. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 239, 11. https://doi.org/10.2495/WS190021
Sørensen, J. F. L. (2014). Les différences urbano-rurales de la satisfaction dans la vie: Des preuves provenant de l’Union européenne. Regional Studies, 48(9), 1451–1466. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2012.753142
Strosnider, H., Kennedy, C., Monti, M., & Yip, F. (2017). Rural and urban differences in air quality, 2008–2012, and community drinking water quality, 2010–2015–United States. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 66(13), 1. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6613a1
Suditu, B., Nae, M., Negut, S., & Gheorghilas, A. (2014). Responsibilities and limits of local government actions against users of public services of planning and sustainable territorial development in Romania. Amfiteatru Economic Journal, 16(35), 154–170.
Suharto, R. B., Rochaida, E., Roy, J., & Permana, M. (2021). Analysis of inclusive economic development of environmental quality in Indonesia by examining environmental Kuznets curve. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 11(4), 225–229.
Suharto, R. B., Rochaida, E., Roy, J., & Setini, M. (2020). Connectivity inclusive economic development and environmental quality in decentralized Indonesia. PalArch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/egyptology, 17(6), 4252–4261.
Sumaedi, S., Bakti, I. G. M. Y., Rakhmawati, T., Astrini, N. J., Widianti, T., & Yarmen, M. (2016). Factors influencing public transport passengers’ satisfaction: A new model. Management of Environmental Quality an International Journal, 27(5), 585. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-05-2015-0084
Sun, H., Rabbani, M. R., Ahmad, N., Sial, M. S., Cheng, G., Zia-Ud-Din, M., & Fu, Q. (2020). CSR, co-creation and green consumer loyalty: Are green banking initiatives important? A moderated mediation approach from an emerging economy. Sustainability, 12(24), 10688.
Suryaningtyas, D., Sudiro, A., Eka, T. A., & Dodi, I. W. (2019). Organizational resilience and organizational performance: Examining the mediating roles of resilient leadership and organizational culture. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 18(2), 1–7.
Suyanto, B. A. R., Adi, P. H., & Suwandari, L. (2019). The moderating roles of cultural value on the relationship between self congruity and destination loyalty (Case of Owabong). ICORE.
Takatori, C., Kawaguchi, N., & Shimizu, H. (2019). Managing urban and rural agricultural landscape processes in Japan.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95576-6_3
Tsai, M. (2017). The influence of loyalty, participation and obedience on organizational citizenship behavior. International Journal of Business and Economic Affairs, 2(1), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.24088/ijbea-2017-21009
Tung, V. W. S., Chen, P.-J., & Schuckert, M. (2017). Managing customer citizenship behaviour: The moderating roles of employee responsiveness and organizational reassurance. Tourism Management, 59, 23–35.
UN-Habitat. (2016). From habitat II to habitat III: Twenty years of urban development. World Cities Report.
Veingerl Cic, Z., Vujica Herzog, N., & Macek, A. (2020). Individual work performance management model. International Journal of Simulation Modelling (IJSIMM), 19(1).
Velayudhan, S. K. (2018). Influence of antecedents of expectations on perceived quality: A study of rural and urban subcultures. International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, 16(4), 438–459.
Vieira, E. W. R., Dutra, I. R. D., Cerqueira, L. J., & Gazzinelli, A. (2020). Urban-rural disparity in health services utilization in a small municipality. Rev Rene, 21, 42458.
Wahyuni, L., Chariri, A., & Yuyetta, E. A. (2021). Whistleblowing intention: Theory of planned behavior perspectives. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business, 8(1), 335–341.
Wang, L., Li, M., Yu, S., Chen, X., Li, Z., Zhang, Y., Jiang, L., Xia, Y., Li, J., Liu, W., Li, P., Lichtfouse, E., Rosenfeld, D., & Seinfeld, J. H. (2020). Unexpected rise of ozone in urban and rural areas, and sulfur dioxide in rural areas during the coronavirus city lockdown in Hangzhou, China: Implications for air quality. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18(5), 1713–1723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01028-3
Wilczyńska, D., Li, J., Yang, Y., Fan, H., Liu, T., & Lipowski, M. (2021). Fear of COVID-19 changes the motivation for physical activity participation: Polish-Chinese comparisons. Health Psychology Report, 9(2), 138–148.
Xiao, L., He, Z., Wang, Y., & Guo, Q. (2017). Understanding urban–rural linkages from an ecological perspective. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 24(1), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2016.1157105
Yukalang, N., Clarke, B., & Ross, K. (2018). Solid waste management solutions for a rapidly urbanizing area in Thailand: Recommendations based on stakeholder input. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(7), 1302. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071302
Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: A means-end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2–22.
Zhang, B., & Zhu, Y. (2020). Comparing attitudes towards adoption of e-government between urban users and rural users: an empirical study in Chongqing municipality, China. Behaviour and Information Technology. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2020.1743361
Zheng, J., & An, R. (2015). Satisfaction with local exercise facility: A rural-urban comparison in China. Rural and Remote Health, 15(2), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.22605/RRH2990
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest concerning the manuscript sent for publication.
Research with Human and Animal Participants
For the research carried out, citizens of rural and urban areas were surveyed. Citizens were informed about the academic purpose and anonymity of the study before completing the questionnaire.
Informed Consent
Verbal consent was requested before the citizen completed the questionnaire. The anonymity of the interviewee was guaranteed at all times.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Ochoa-Rico, M.S., Río, J.A.Jd., Romero-Subia, J.F. et al. Study of Citizen Satisfaction in Rural Versus Urban Areas in Public Services: Perspective of a Multi-group Analysis. Soc Indic Res 171, 87–110 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-023-03242-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-023-03242-2