Introduction

During the past decade from 2008–2019, the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander higher degree by research (HDR) students (hereafter referred to as Indigenous HDR students) enrolled in a postgraduate degree has increased by 74.6% from 393 in 2008 to 686 in 2019 (Universities Australia [UA], 2021). Despite a recent surge in Indigenous HDR enrolments, data from 2019 indicates that Indigenous HDR students accounted for just 1.07% (73 completions) of total domestic postgraduate research award completions (Australian Government Department of Education [DET], 2019; UA, 2021). However, increasing the number of Indigenous students participating in higher education has been the focus of Universities Australia (2017), the Australian Government Department of Education and Training (DET, 2018), and the Department of Education, Skills and Employment [DESE] (2022) in the recent years. Despite the above-mentioned government funded support strategies including the Commonwealth’s Indigenous Student Success Program (ISSP) a gap in completion rates persists.

The low rate of Indigenous research degree completions has also led to a low representation of Indigenous academic staff in Australian universities which was reported to be only 0.98% (Anderson et al., 2022; UA, 2021). The flow on effect means that there are not enough Indigenous academics to supervise the number of Indigenous HDR students in academia. As such the importance of having quality non-Indigenous HDR supervision is an essential component to increasing the number of Indigenous HDR completions.

Quality supervision is an enabling factor in Indigenous HDR completions (Anderson et al., 2021; Hutchings et al., 2019; Trudgett et al., 2016). Indigenous HDR students perceive quality supervision as encompassing comprehensive support from their supervisors. In addition to academic support, Indigenous HDR students rely on supervisors’ support and understanding related to overall well-being throughout their candidature (Anderson et al., 2021). However, to strengthen the supervisor-student relationship, it is critical for students and supervisors to understand the roles and responsibilities related to their respective roles during the research degree (Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020). Understanding supervisors’ roles and responsibilities ensures the boundaries are clear. Recent research (Anderson et al., 2021; Barney, 2018; Hutchings et al., 2019) has highlighted the important role of supervisors in supporting Indigenous HDR students.

Supervising Indigenous HDR students

Indigenous HDR students encounter racism from both their peers and other academics within institutional settings and disciplinary scholarship (Anderson et al., 2022). Supervising Indigenous HDR students necessitates supervisors to possess some levels of cultural understanding in addition to their discipline expertise to support their Indigenous HDR students (Anderson et al., 2022). It is not the role of the Indigenous HDR students to culturally educate their supervisors, instead supervisors of Indigenous HDRs need to be proactive and seek cultural awareness training.

Anderson et al. (2022) highlighted concerns regarding the mental health and well-being of Indigenous HDR students, as well as the alignment of supervisors’ expertise with students’ expectations. Cardilini et al. (2021) discuss a mismatch of expectations between supervisors and HDR students and argues that is critical to discuss the expectations of quality supervision from both the perspectives of supervisors and Indigenous HDR students. This mismatch of expectations may cause poor experience in HDR students’ candidature and influence their mental health and wellbeing (Cardilini et al., 2021). Specifically, Cardilini et al. (2021) suggest that ‘candidates and supervisors explicitly communicate their separate responsibilities and expectations regarding the spectrum of attributes and outcomes needed to successfully complete a PhD’ (p. 12).

In another study, McGagh et al. (2016) highlighted the risks of unrealistic expectations that may result in HDR students’ withdrawal part-way, unattainable career outcomes, or pose a potential threat to the ongoing viability of HDR training. While their research focused on non-Indigenous HDR students, Indigenous HDR students share a similar perspective of explicit expectations and responsibilities between supervisors and Indigenous HDR students (Anderson et al., 2022). These discussions between HDR students and supervisors are needed at the beginning of their research relationship to develop effective and productive supervisor-student collaboration, and to build a good rapport in a strong mutual-respect partnership.

Quality supervision from supervisors’ perspectives

There is a need for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students to attend cultural safety and awareness training to better support Indigenous HDR students and increase their own confidence and competency in dealing with cultural issues (Anderson et al., 2022; Trudgett, 2011). Cavanagh et al. (2022) state, ‘the willingness of supervisors to understand and attend to knowledges, research methodologies, and diverse Indigenous societies has also been identified as a necessary factor for Indigenous HDR success’ (p. 49). Furthermore, a quality relationship between Indigenous HDR students and supervisors based on culturally safe support is critical for students’ success (Cavanagh et al., 2022). Discussing quality supervision from supervisors’ perspectives, Anderson et al. (2022) reported a range of quality supervision factors to support Indigenous HDR students to succeed, including building rapport.

Being explicit about the supervisors’ expectations and responsibilities at the start of the supervision could provide benefits to the supervisor-student relationship. Insufficient clarity from the beginning of HDR students’ candidature might result in inappropriate supervision styles and expectations (Trudgett, 2011), inappropriate expectations from students (Whittington et al., 2021), and create negative research experiences for Indigenous HDR students and Indigenous communities (Cavanagh et al., 2022). Clearly stating supervisors’ expectations and responsibilities, and what they can offer to support Indigenous HDR students to successfully complete their research study, is a pivotal aspect of supporting Indigenous HDR students in achieving success.

Quality supervision from Indigenous HDR students’ perspectives

Quality supervision is a success factor for Indigenous HDR students in their research journey (Hutchings et al., 2019; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett, 2011, 2013, 2014). Moreton-Robinson et al. (2020) reported that characteristics of quality supervision from Indigenous HDR students’ perspectives include an open communication strategy and clear expectations from the start of the supervisor-student relationship. Anderson et al. (2022) indicated that Indigenous HDR students need quality supervision to be successful and that establishing expectations with supervisors from the beginning will help to ensure a long-term, cooperative, and strong relationship.

Whittington et al. (2021) recognised that ‘within any relationship each individual brings with them expectations of what each feels they will give and receive’ (p. 216). In student-supervisor relationships, some students expressed that they hoped to exchange expectations with their supervisors (Anderson et al., 2022), while others expected to be supported in their academic careers (Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020), mental health and wellbeing (Cardilini et al., 2021), and, be respected as knowledge-holders and supported in academic skill-based support from supervisors (Trudgett, 2014). Indigenous HDR students bring high expectations of quality supervision to the supervisor-student relationship. Simultaneously, understanding their supervisors’ expectations will also help research students adjust and shape working styles to be effective in the relationship with their supervisors.

In this study, we recognised the importance of bringing together the expectations of quality supervision from both parties in the supervisor-student relationship. We report on the supervisors’ expectations, their understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ expectations, and compare these with Indigenous HDR students’ expectations and understandings which we have published previously (see Anderson et al., 2022). The research question guiding this paper is: What are supervisors required to do to ensure Indigenous HDR students are fully supported to complete their research degrees?

Theoretical framework of Indigenous standpoint

In our investigation of supervisors’ expectations concerning Indigenous HDR students, we employed Nakata’s (2007) Indigenous Standpoint theory, recognising Indigenous agency and perspectives. This framework elucidates how Indigenous standpoints serve as both analytical tools and persuasive devices, challenging dominant narratives and highlighting overlooked issues. Our research aims to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by Indigenous HDR students and contribute to the decolonisation of academic research practices.

We are a team of Indigenous researchers from Walpiri and Murinpatha peoples of the Northern Territory, and Beausoleil First Nations in Canada and a non-Indigenous researcher from who understand higher education challenges from the outsider’s perspective. By integrating Indigenous and non-Indigenous standpoints, our aim is to foster a more inclusive and equitable dialogue, enriching our understanding of Indigenous issues and facilitating collaborative approaches to research and knowledge production.

Methodology

The study adopted a qualitative research method to explore supervisors’ expectations and their understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ expectation of quality supervision. As Gray (2018) stated that ‘qualitative methods allow researchers to gain a deep, intense and holistic overview of the context under study’ (p. 164), qualitative methods also ‘allow researchers interpreting the findings from their own background to shape the interpretation, and ‘position themselves’ in the research to acknowledge how their interpretation flows from their own personal, cultural, and historical experiences’ (Creswell & Poth, 2013, p. 52). The qualitative data we had was open-ended responses included in the survey and then analysed using thematic analysis.

Research participants and data collection

The research participants are Indigenous HDR students and supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. This study has from a larger study that included six phases and received ethical clearance from Queensland University of Technology. Each phase had different participant recruitment strategies and data collection procedures and are noted below:

  • Phase 1 involved Indigenous HDR students from across Australia who attended NIRAKN capacity building workshops in 2018, and provided data via evaluation forms.

  • Phase 2 explored Indigenous HDR students’ experiences and needs during their HDR candidature and their expectations and experiences of HDR supervision. This phase involved participants who attended the capacity building workshop in phase 1 and agreed to participate in the optional Department of Education and Training forum in late 2018.

  • Phase 3 involved NIRAKN and Carumba capacity building workshops for Queensland Indigenous HDR students, and focused on collecting feedback through evaluation forms.

  • Phase 4 (referred to in this study) involved an online survey targeting Indigenous HDR students who did not attend phase 2 but wished to be involved in this research project across Australia. Participants in phase 4 were recruited through university networks via email.

  • Phase 5 (main focus of this study) involved an online survey targeting supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. Recruitment used purposeful sampling and included supervisors from across Australia. Participants were recruited through university networks via email. This phase aimed to understand supervisors’ experiences of HDR supervision and their perceptions of quality supervision.

  • Phase 6 involved an online survey of Indigenous HDR students who attended NIRAKN workshops or conferences across Australia. Recruitment used purposeful sampling through university networks, social media, and the NIRAKN mailing list.

This paper focuses on the data obtained in Phase 5 of the study, from supervisors of Indigenous HDR students (i.e., PhD, EdD, and/or Masters by Research students). We conducted an online survey using the Key survey platform to investigate the expectations of quality supervision from the perspective of supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. We relied on university networks to contact potential participants by email. In total, 33 participants who were or are supervisors of Indigenous HDR students completed the survey from locations across Australia.

We refer to the participants as Supervisor#; all the supervisors had experience in supervising at least one Indigenous HDR student previously or were currently supervising Indigenous HDR student/s. The survey comprised demographic questions about participants’ ethnicity (i.e., Indigenous or non-Indigenous), highest qualification, years of experience in a supervision role, the experience of supervising Indigenous HDR students, and eight open-ended questions asking participants to share their experience about quality supervision and/or experience with Indigenous HDR students.

We asked participants to share their perception of quality supervision; what they [supervisor] expect from Indigenous HDR students and what they think Indigenous HDR students expect from them. We also asked supervisors to share some good practices in supervision that they follow and their concerns when supervising HDR (Indigenous and non-Indigenous) students. Next, we asked supervisors what challenges they had encountered when supervising HDR (Indigenous and non-Indigenous) students. We also asked supervisors if they offer students for opportunities to attend academic development, if so, what they are. Last we asked participants what professional development is required for supervisors to ensure the successful completion of Indigenous HDR students.

Data analysis

In this qualitative research we conducted a thematic analysis using NVivo Pro 12 software. The open-ended responses collected from the online survey were coded into nodes to identify the themes. The nodes consisted of the eight questions we asked supervisors of Indigenous HDR students in the online survey. The emerging themes we found in analysing the question about supervisors’ expectations include basic research skills, commitment to complete the project at their best capabilities, a respectful relationship, letting the supervisors know if any challenges arose during the candidature, and students accepting critical feedback about their writing. Furthermore, several themes emerged in analysing supervisors’ understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ expectations. These are supporting students’ mental health, guiding students in research and research career, availability for meeting with students, supervisors’ expertise, providing feedback in a timely manner, and respecting students’ knowledge and expertise. While this paper focuses on the data from phase 5—an online survey with supervisors of Indigenous HDR students (33 participants), we also compared data to that collected from an online survey with Indigenous HDR students (32 participants) in phase 4 of this study where necessary (shown later in the paper in Table 1).

Findings and discussion

In this section, we share our findings from the online survey relating to supervisors’ expectations and their understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ expectations of quality supervision.

Supervisors of Indigenous HDR students: the expectations

Research and work-based skills

We found that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students expect their students to have basic research skills. It is reasonable to expect Indigenous HDR students possess certain research skills to start their research degree program. However, understanding that some Indigenous HDR students enrol and commence their doctoral research journey from a coursework background may provide supervisors a broader perspective for supporting Indigenous HDR students. Trudgett (2014) suggested that academic skill-based support from supervisors is one of the best practices for supervising Indigenous HDR students. Moreton-Robinson et al. (2020) reflected in their report that Indigenous HDR students ‘proposed to have research methods and training courses in place to enhance students’ knowledge and skills of conducting research’ (p. 30). The need to be supported in enhancing and/or improving research skills of Indigenous HDR students was documented in previous studies (i.e., Anderson et al., 2022; Behrendt et al., 2012; Moodie et al., 2018; Trudgett, 2009, 2011). As Anderson et al. (2022) reported that Indigenous HDR students need access to research training programs during their candidature, the findings of this study confirmed the need for this training from the supervisors’ perspective.

We also found that supervisors expect Indigenous HDR student to work with supervisors as a team and accept critical feedback. Collaboration with the supervisory team is critical for HDR students. For instance, Supervisor#29 stated: ‘I expect students (all students) to care about the work they are doing and want to be part of the team’… and ‘eventually collaboration’. During the research journey, supervisors’ feedback is crucial for supporting a HDR student to complete their thesis; hence, it is expected that Indigenous HDR students should become familiar with accepting critical feedback from their supervisors. Critical feedback is a strategy supervisors use in their supervision (Anderson et al., 2022); hence, supervisors expect their Indigenous HDR students to be open and accept critical feedback. Particularly, Supervisor#30 said: ‘I expect that Indigenous HDR students learn to accept critical feedback and stop this trend of shopping around for supervisors simply because they cannot accept critical feedback’. This statement is important for all HDR students, however, the message from supervisors is clear that it is for Indigenous HDR students to understand and accept that criticism is part of the experience.

Most supervisors want their students to succeed, and the critical feedback provided is done to ensure the students are attending to aspects that have obvious weaknesses. As Supervisor#2 stated that they usually provide feedback to written work, discuss the potential research design, and guide their students to complete their thesis; hence, accepting critical feedback is part of the process. This finding confirms that critical feedback as a quality supervision factor contributes to Indigenous HDR students’ success. Moreton-Robinson et al. (2020) revealed that Indigenous HDR students expected critical but constructive feedback from supervisors to help them grow and succeed in their HDR research journey. However, the manner in which feedback is given is still absent from supervisors’ discussion.

It is critical to consider culturally safety when providing feedback to Indigenous HDR students, as critical feedback given in a caring culturally sensitive manner will make a significant difference in Indigenous HDR students’ emotional and mental health and wellbeing. As a result, supervisors who are not sure how to address culturally safety when working with Indigenous HDR students may wish to seek professional development in cultural safety to help with their supervision skill set.

Last we found that supervisors expect Indigenous HDR students to learn from peers. The experience of peer learning is not frequently applied at the doctoral level as it is more popular in undergraduate level. Indigenous HDR students’ experience is not usually framed with peer learning due to exclusion and racism issues (Anderson et al., 2022). However, the effectiveness of peer learning at the doctoral level was demonstrated by Meschitti (2019). The finding of the current study is consistent with Meschitti’s (2019) finding that peer learning is favourable at the doctoral level from the supervisors’ perspective. For instance, Supervisor#32 stated: ‘I expect them [Indigenous HDR students] to talk to the ones coming behind them to show and engage them too as possible researchers’ and ‘I expect them to be colleagues and peers to other HDRs’. However, to engage with other doctoral cohorts, Indigenous HDR students need a peer support network from supervisors, Indigenous units, universities and national bodies (Trudgett, 2014).

Following Behrendt et al.’s. (2012) recommendations, Trudgett’s (2014) framework for the best practice supervision of Indigenous doctoral students provides opportunities for peer support networking. Moreover, Anderson et al. (2021) reported a range of activities available exclusively to Indigenous HDR students, including skill development, networking events, workshops with their Indigenous peers in a culturally safe space, and off-site writing retreats to focus on writing their thesis without distractions. Even though peer learning is not common at doctoral study level, it is advantageous to create Indigenous cohorts for Indigenous HDR students in ways that they learn and share experience with their peers, are less isolated emotionally, and the risk of alienation in the academy is reduced. Expecting peer learning to occur amongst Indigenous HDR students requires supervisors to provide supports and opportunities for Indigenous HDR students to engage with their peers. However, supervisors who participated in this study did not mention whether they created peer learning opportunities for their students.

Research related expected characteristics of Indigenous HDR students

Our research findings indicate that supervisors do not hold different expectations about the Indigenous and non-Indigenous HDR students they supervise in terms of research related characteristics. Specifically, Supervisor#3 stated that: ‘I expect from Indigenous HDR students the same that I expect from any other HDR students: hard-work, be honest, and enjoy the work.’ The majority of participants agreed with the statement that there is no significant difference in supervisors’ expectations for Indigenous and non-Indigenous HDR students. Supervisor#10 confirmed that they expect the same from Indigenous students as from non-Indigenous students, but also provide additional support where needed, especially around academic writing, to their Indigenous HDR student.

As mentioned above, supervisors expect their Indigenous HDR students to collaborate with them and work as a team. Effective collaboration was found to require a range of characteristics from Indigenous HDR students, including being independent, proactive, serious, industrious, consistent, honest, motivated, focused, hard-working and resilient. Supervisor#16 mentioned: ‘I expect hard work, focus and resilience as I would expect from any other student.’ In addition, Supervisor#14 stated that ‘students need to be motivated and deliver the output to the best of their abilities.’ Supervisor#25 said: ‘I expect them to be self-paced and self-organised. I expect them to succeed and to become the expert’. However, should anything happen, supervisors expect their students to consult with them to produce work in a timely manner as explained by Supervisor#3 that ‘for students to adhere to their study plans and timeline, consult with supervisors and produce work in a timely way’.

HDR programs in Australia are in very high demand, which requires HDR students to perform to high standards. Supervisors have to ensure their students meet the high standards of their institution. For instance, Supervisor#4 mentioned: ‘for both [Indigenous and non-Indigenous HDR students] I expect high standards, professional conduct’. Supervisor#34 added that:

I expect them to do the work required, to grow in their understanding of the level of work required, and to do the best they can. I think the community needs us to do the best we can for them particularly if we say we are doing our work for the community and with the community. When we say the words ‘we are doing our research for mob’ that does not imply slackness, it should instil in us and students to do their best for mob.

An additional expectation appears to be placed on Indigenous HDR students with regards to also completing their research degrees for mob, meaning the Indigenous student’s family and/or the wider Indigenous community.

Engaging with a research project and making progress to completion

Indigenous HDR students need supervisors’ support, including their interest and engagement in the research project. The findings from this study reveal that supervisors expect Indigenous HDR students to engage in their research project by doing the reading to understand their research topic and how it should progress. Supervisor#27 said: ‘Do the reading. Even if you decide it isn’t on topic or relevant, knowing that helps refine your research problem a bit more’. Regarding students’ engagement, another participant stated: ‘I expect them to fully engage (with) their topic and to have a clear idea about why they are researching their topic and how they can contribute to existing knowledge and their community’ (Supervisor#1). Supervisor#5 said: ‘I don’t really expect any more than I would in any other collegial situation. I just want an authentic engagement’. In addition, ‘keep thinking and working on it [the research project] consistently, even in small amounts’ as supervisors expect Indigenous HDR students to work consistently on their project (Supervisor#20, #27), and demonstrate the progress of thinking, reading and writing (Supervisor#11).

Supervisor#21 also emphasised that: ‘I expect that Indigenous HDR is engaged with their research degrees. I expect that they are prepared to do the work’. Prior studies, such as those by Moreton-Robinson et al. (2020) and Anderson et al. (2022), have noted the importance of supervisors’ interests in Indigenous HDR students’ research projects and that Indigenous HDR students expect supervisors’ interest in their research; this finding brings another view of expectation from supervisors that Indigenous HDR students are expected to be interested in their own research topic and actively engage in their project and progress consistently.

Showing commitment to engage in the research project also requires Indigenous HDR students to work in a timely manner, such as ‘meeting agreed timelines’, ‘achieving the milestones’, and ‘making progress to timely completion of their degree to a decent quality’. Expectations such as timely work, taking notes during meetings, actively arranging a meeting with the supervisory team, timely response and follow-up were recurrent responses from the participants. As one supervisor commented: ‘I expect students to treat it like a job to turn up on time, to turn up for commitments, activities, meetings, to model their deadlines’ (Supervisor#32). Other responses to this question included: ‘I expect regular content and for them to achieve the milestones at the start’ (Supervisor#20). Supervisor#25 said: ‘I expect any HDR students to do the work they have said they are going to do’; and ‘I expect the student to be committed to their project and show they are keen to learn’ (Supervisor#22). The supervisors believe that Indigenous HDR students should not need to be reminded of deadlines and should be responsible for their own actions and have an element of self-direction and resourcefulness (Supervisor#2, #14). Additionally, Supervisor#7 said: ‘I expect my students to be in constant communication with me all the time about the progress’ or ‘…make the meeting even if there has not been a lot of writing progress’ (Supervisor#27).

There were common expectations from both supervisors and Indigenous HDR students of the same constant communication, timely responses, and regular meetings. Trudgett (2014) indicated in the framework of best practice for supervising Indigenous doctoral students that scheduling regular meetings is an academic skill-based support from supervisors. Indigenous HDR students also expect that supervisors will arrange regular meetings and provide timely feedback, whether in person or at online meetings (Anderson et al., 2022; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020). This finding is in line with other studies listed above and confirms that supervisors highly value regular meetings with students; however, HDR students also need to actively communicate with supervisors to arrange meetings as needed. Whether the regular meetings are arranged by supervisors or students, the meetings for feedback, for progressing, and/or for supporting students are pivotal in the supervisor-student relationship as well as for students’ success. To reduce conflict and promote positive outcomes, Cardilini et al. (2021) suggested that ‘supervisors and students should agree on a communication style that best fits both their needs, and regularly evaluate and discuss their communications effectiveness’ (p. 12).

Supervisor-student relationship

The relationship between supervisors and HDR students helps to form the success factor that influences Indigenous HDR students’ completion (Cardilini et al., 2021). A common view among supervisors of Indigenous HDR students was that they wanted to be treated with respect, and this sentiment recurred in the responses regarding supervisors’ expectations. The supervisor-student relationship is also a reciprocal relationship between supervisors and Indigenous HDR students. As Anderson et al. (2022) reported that Indigenous HDR students expected to be respected for their knowledge and expertise, our findings contribute to this reciprocal relationship, demonstrating that supervisors also expect a respectful relationship from their students. For instance, Supervisor#26 said: ‘I expected them to treat me with respect, and other supervisors with respect.’ Therefore, Indigenous HDR students are expected to maintain openness in this relationship, informing their supervisors if any challenges or issues have arisen and seeking supervisors’ support when needed. For instance, Supervisor#29 mentioned:

It helps when I have a clear understanding about the issues they have faced and/or continue to face with respect to being an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander person and student as that ensures I can offer person-centred supervision and have a good understanding of opportunities and challenges for them as they arise.

Previous studies (e.g., Anderson et al., 2022; Berryman et al., 2017; Harrison et al., 2017; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020; Trudgett, 2014) support the importance of a reciprocal supervisor-student relationship, highlight the expectations of Indigenous HDR students and make suggestions for supervisors about a mutually respectful supervisor-student relationship. Our findings validated the existence of a mutually respectful relationship between supervisors and Indigenous HDR students from supervisors’ perspectives. Supervisors not only respect Indigenous HDR students as knowledge holders but also respect Indigenous cultures and communities.

We also found that non-Indigenous supervisors expect to learn from Indigenous HDR students regarding cultural issues, and for students to correct supervisors if they make any cultural mistakes. For example, Supervisor#10 revealed:

I try to have honest, ongoing conversations with my student/s where I am open about the fact that I am white, and I may make mistakes culturally on occasion. I ask them to tell me if I step wrongly, or if I am not giving them the support they need. I try to treat the relationship more like a partnership where we can learn from each other.

A partnership style relationship is expected by supervisors, especially non-Indigenous supervisors who highly value Indigenous knowledge and cultures and are open to learning from Indigenous HDR students. Trudgett (2014) recommends mandatory cultural awareness training for supervisors. Wilson (2017) suggests training for supervisors to ensure familiarity with the cultural meanings of time and space which can impact research process and timelines. Wilson’s findings align with Anderson et al.’ (2022) findings that supervisors’ need professional development in cultural awareness, cultural safety and cultural knowledge training. It appears that supervisors are interested and willing to learn about Indigenous cultural knowledge when supervising Indigenous HDR students.

It is the responsibility of academic institutions to implement cultural awareness and cultural safety training to educate individuals, including supervisors, interested in Indigenous peoples’ knowledge and culture, and is not the Indigenous HDR students’ role. By participating in these training programs, supervisors can equip themselves with the necessary cultural knowledge and understanding to effectively work with Indigenous HDR students. We concur that supervisors of Indigenous HDR students should undergo cross-cultural awareness training and adjust their practices to better support Indigenous HDR students.

Understanding Indigenous HDR students’ expectations of quality supervision

A wide range of factors contribute to quality supervision, including supervisors’ expertise and professional supervision, and their support throughout the Indigenous HDR student’s candidature. We found that understanding Indigenous HDR students’ expectations of quality supervision influences the collaborative, productive, supportive, and mutually respectful partnership between supervisors and Indigenous HDR students. We also found that understanding students’ expectations may foster a good rapport that can greatly influence Indigenous HDR students’ successful completion. Two broad themes emerged from the analysis of Indigenous HDR students’ expectations from supervisors’ perspectives, including: (1) supervisors’ expertise and professional supervision, and (2) supervisors’ support.

Supervisors’ expertise and professional supervision

Supervisors’ expertise in a particular discipline and their professionalism attracts students’ interest when they are seeking a potential supervisor. We found that supervisors understand that students can expect discipline expertise and professional supervision to guide Indigenous HDR students to success. ‘I also bring my expertise in the industry to the table’ (Supervisor#6). Supervisor#24 mentioned: ‘My students expect from me a lot of advice on processes, publications, where to find resources, how to manage them, and keeping track of their deadlines for them’. Supervisors’ knowledge is crucial for supervising students, but in return, Indigenous HDR students, also expect supervisors to respect their knowledge and expertise. A respondent stated: ‘In return, my students expect me to respect their knowledge and expertise, honest advice and opinions’ (Supervisor#26).

Professional supervision was demonstrated in supervisors’ availability for meetings and for supporting students when needed. Importantly, providing timely feedback was perceived by supervisors as critical. For instance, Supervisors#23 said: ‘Students expect me to be available for meetings, regular meetings, to have time for others, to return work within two weeks if possible, and be available when needed’. The word ‘feedback’ was repeated 28 times in the participants’ responses and ‘timely feedback’ was repeated five times in the responses when we asked: ‘What do you think Indigenous HDR students expect from you?’ The responses mentioned ‘timely feedback’ as one of Indigenous HDR students’ expectations, including ‘provide feedback to written work’ (Supervisor#2), ‘mark their work in a timely fashion’ (Supervisor#11), ‘read their work and provide timely feedback’ (Supervisor#15), ‘timely feedback and support’ (Supervisor#17, #18), and ‘return students’ work within 2 weeks if possible’ (Supervisor#23). As one participant said: ‘they expect me to be there for them, to provide feedback’ (Supervisor#20). Another participant added: ‘Give clear feedback. Give feedback when you say you will. If you don’t, give a new estimate date for your feedback, as supervisors miss deadlines too, so that student can organise their schedule’ (Supervisor#27).

Supervisors’ support

Supervisors understand that Indigenous HDR students need their support and guidance throughout their degrees. For example, Supervisor#1 stated:

My students expect me to be able to support them in navigating the administrative part of their candidacy as well as support them in their intellectual growth and their career as academics (if that’s the career they have chosen to pursue). They can also expect me to just be there as emotional support during the tougher times.

Another supervisor said: ‘In most circumstances, students expected a structure from me that can help them to stay on track. Guidance around university rules and regulations. Needed help in study design, editing, theoretical frameworks, etc.’ (Supervisor#14). Another supervisor stated: ‘They [Indigenous HDR students] expect me to be there for them, to provide feedback, guidance and help. Often this means help navigating western academia and finding creative ways to get around the restrictions that the institution imposes’ (Supervisor#20). Supervisors also reported that Indigenous HDR students need them to be available, supportive of their work, provide guidance and pathways to achieve their milestones and complete their research. Supervisor#25 added: ‘I feel my HDR student expects me to be there if they need to talk about any issues that they cannot manage alone. Sometimes, I am the buffer between the institution and what is required, and I essentially try to make sure they are culturally safe’. If supervisors are not well placed to help, supervisors can support Indigenous HDR students ‘by seeking other help or advice and can advocate in the institution when people or systems are difficult or racist’ (Supervisor#26). Support was also needed relating to research skills, including academic writing skills, research methodologies, data analysis and publications. In addition, supporting Indigenous HDR students in their future academic careers, and emotional and mental health were highlighted in the findings of this study.

Supervisors acknowledge that they need to listen, to be trusted, to be reliable, and encourage. For example, one said: ‘Students can expect that I will really listen and mark their work in a timely fashion. [Indigenous HDR students] students can expect that I will want to work with them and encourage them to write into different outlets and with me’ (Supervisor#11). Supervisor#29 commented: ‘Allowing them [Indigenous HDR students] the time and independence to chart their research journey with their families and communities and research participants’. Also, ‘the student likewise expects trust and reliability’ Supervisor#8 revealed.

‘Understanding’ is a highly sought-after characteristic for Indigenous HDR students when they search for their potential supervisors to start their research journey. From the perspectives of supervisors, understanding the challenges of Indigenous students and willingly protecting students, particularly in cultural and racial issues, were found in this study. For instance, Supervisor#11 said: ‘Students can expect that I will listen, work hard and advocate on their behalf shielding them from the bureaucracy of the university as possible’; and ‘an advocate in the institution when people or systems are difficult or racist’ Supervisor#26). A supervisor who is willing to counter white privilege was expected by Indigenous HDR students (Supervisor#4). Furthermore, Supervisor#29 emphasised: ‘My students (I have had four Aboriginal HDR students) expect me to understand the expectations and challenges they face as an Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander person in the research process and in their day-to-day lives, particularly cultural expectations’.

In summary, our findings revealed that supervisors expect essential research and working skills from Indigenous HDR students. Supervisors described certain desirable characteristics that Indigenous HDR students need for success, including being independent, proactive, serious, industrious, consistent, honest, motivated, focused, hard-working and resilient. Supervisors also reported that actively engaging in the research project, making progress to completion, and building a mutually respectful relationship with supervisors were expected. In return, supervisors should understand Indigenous HDR students’ needs and/or expectations of quality supervision, these included: supervisors’ discipline expertise, professional supervision, and support. Table 1 illustrates the understanding supervisors have about Indigenous HDR students and conversely, the needs and wants of Indigenous HDR students related to quality supervision. As previously mentioned, the data from Indigenous HDR students is from another study we conducted related to understanding the needs and experiences of Indigenous HDR students (see Anderson et al., 2021, 2022; Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020).

Table 1 Supervisors’ understanding about Indigenous HDR students’ needs and wants related to quality supervision
Full size table

Table 1 also highlights several mismatches between supervisors’ understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ requirements for quality supervision and the supervisors’ expectations of Indigenous HDR students. The mismatch between supervisors’ advice and Indigenous HDR students’ needs reflects differing priorities within the supervisory relationship. Supervisors typically focus on offering guidance on research processes and ensuring adherence to deadlines, underscoring their role in structuring, and facilitating the research journey. Conversely, Indigenous HDR students often seek to assert their autonomy and maintain a balance of power within this relationship, striving to navigate their research independently while also respecting the expertise and guidance of their supervisors (Moreton-Robinson et al., 2020). This disparity highlights the complex interplay between supervision and student autonomy, emphasising the importance of aligning expectations and fostering mutual respect for effective collaboration.

The disparities in supervisors’ understanding of supporting Indigenous HDR students versus their actual needs underscore the importance of a holistic approach to supervision. While supervisors may recognise the significance of supporting Indigenous HDR students in their academic and emotional well-being, Indigenous HDR students require additional cultural support and considerations for their personal lives. This necessitates supervisors to demonstrate empathy, respect, and cultural understanding, fostering a mutually respectful relationship and serving as mentors and cultural advisors. We recommend that supervisors prioritise cultural safety and awareness in interactions with Indigenous HDR students, which is essential for creating an inclusive and supportive academic environment.

Our study demonstrates that supervisors may understand Indigenous HDR students’ expectations of quality supervision, as shown in Table 1; however, there are other expectations that were not accounted for. These include discussion of working styles and clear expectations from the beginning of a supervisor-student relationship, supervisors’ practices of cultural safety and awareness, and access to research training for Indigenous HDR students. Understanding the mismatches between supervisors’ and Indigenous HDR students’ expectations encourages adjustments in supervisors’ practices for quality supervision and adjustments in Indigenous HDR students’ learning and working styles during their candidature for students’ success. We suggest that open communication should be established in the supervisor-student relationship and expectations should be exchanged to build a productive partnership.

Summary of findings

In the above section, we shared the findings from supervisors of Indigenous HDR students including their expectations, their understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ expectation, and the matches and mismatches in expectations between supervisors and Indigenous HDR students. We also discussed our findings in relation to the literature. The next section proposes strategies for supervisors to strengthen the collaborative, supportive and productive supervisor-student relationship.

Implications from this research for supervisors of Indigenous HDR students

The findings of this study suggest that supervisors need to be more supportive of Indigenous HDR students’ work and provide opportunities for students to grow and succeed in the completion of their research degree. Implications from our research revealed that supervisors can undertake the following strategies to support Indigenous HDR students:

  1. 1.

    Where required, introduce Indigenous HDR students to basic research skills; supervisors can suggest relevant readings, books, materials and/or direct students to attend research training workshops, training courses and/or modules that are available on campus or online if needed. This support will be in line with Trudgett’s (2014) framework for academic skill-based support from supervisors.

  2. 2.

    Foster peer-learning; supervisors might consider creating a network of Indigenous HDR cohorts and/or introducing the students who are currently supervised by the same supervisor to meet and exchange their learning experiences, and to learn how other students went through the milestones as well as recommending workshops and/or events where students can join the research community and meet other PhD students.

  3. 3.

    Ensure Indigenous HDR students understand that receiving critical feedback and/or criticism related to their research is part of being an academic in training. Supervisors can be critical, constructive and encouraging with their feedback to support Indigenous HDR students. Anderson et al. (2022) demonstrated that constructive feedback is beneficial to Indigenous HDR students’ progress.

  4. 4.

    Show engagement with Indigenous HDR students’ research topics; support students and keep students on track but leave space for Indigenous HDR students to be independent in their research project.

  5. 5.

    Foster mutually respectful relationships from the beginning to find appropriate working styles to work together.

  6. 6.

    Non-Indigenous supervisors to seek Indigenous cultural awareness training from their academic institution’s workshops and/or attend professional development programs to strengthen their skills and better support Indigenous students, as Anderson et al. (2022) and Cavanagh et al. (2022) suggest. It is not the role of Indigenous HDR students to teach their supervisor about Indigenous culture.

In summary, strategies for supervisors to better support Indigenous HDR students have been outlined above. We hope that our findings, if implemented, will contribute to increasing Indigenous HDR completions in Australia.

Concluding remarks

This study set out to demonstrate the importance of quality supervision and investigate the expectations of quality supervision from supervisors of Indigenous HDR students. The supervisors’ expectations and their understanding of Indigenous HDR students’ expectations of quality supervision, and the practical expectations of Indigenous HDR students were discussed in this paper. Overall, matches in expectations between supervisors and Indigenous HDR students were identified; however, mismatches were also revealed. Notwithstanding the relatively small sample confined to the Australian higher education context, this study offers valuable insights into Indigenous research in higher education, particularly for supervisors’ practices to best support Indigenous HDR students. We encourage supervisors of Indigenous HDR students to consider these mismatches in expectations of quality supervision and adjust their supervisory practices to strengthen the supervisor-student relationship, efficiently support Indigenous HDR students and enable success in research.