1 Introduction

The integration of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is a crucial step towards sustainable development in Egypt. This strategic alignment ensures a comprehensive evaluation of policies and projects, aligning them with national priorities and global sustainability standards. It not only improves policy coherence and stakeholder engagement but also strengthens environmental governance and directly contributes to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. By embedding sustainability considerations into the decision-making process, Egypt can effectively tackle its unique environmental challenges and development aspirations, paving the way for a sustainable, resilient, and prosperous future.

1.1 Research problem

While Egypt has demonstrated a commitment to integrating environmental considerations into strategic decision-making through SEA, there is a notable gap in fully integrating the three pillars of sustainability (environmental, social, and economic) and aligning SEA practices with the Sustainable Development Goals. Given the interconnected nature of modern environmental challenges and the country's unique development needs, this imbalance may hinder Egypt's ability to achieve comprehensive sustainable development.

1.2 Aim

The research aims to explore the extent to which Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Egypt and to determine how this integration can enhance sustainable development practices and contribute to achieving Egypt's environmental and development goals.

1.3 Research questions

  • 1. How are SEA practices in Egypt aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals, especially concerning integrating environmental, social, and economic considerations?

  • 2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of current SEA practices in Egypt in promoting sustainable development?

  • 3. What challenges and gaps exist in institutional coordination, stakeholder engagement, and policy integration that may affect the effectiveness of SEA in achieving the SDGs?

  • 4. What policy and practice recommendations can be made to enhance the alignment of strategic environmental assessment with sustainable development goals and improve sustainable development outcomes in Egypt?

1.4 Methodology

The study uses a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of SEA reports and documents to assess alignment with the SDGs with qualitative interviews and surveys with key stakeholders involved in SEA processes in Egypt. This methodology allows for a comprehensive assessment of SEA practices, considering procedural aspects and contextual effectiveness in achieving sustainable development. The research also includes a review of current legal and institutional frameworks, stakeholder engagement mechanisms, and mine risk education practices related to environmental and social assessment in Egypt, providing a comprehensive understanding of the current status of strategic environmental assessment and its alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals.

This research seeks to provide valuable insights and recommendations to policymakers, practitioners, and researchers to enhance SEA practices in Egypt and ensure that strategic decision-making processes contribute effectively to achieving the country's sustainable development goals.

2 SEA's global and national relevance for sustainable development

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a critical tool for integrating environmental considerations into policies, plans, and programs at the early stages of the decision-making process [1]. Its importance extends to global and national contexts, confirming its importance in sustainable development efforts. SEA directly supports the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals by ensuring that environmental, social, and economic considerations are balanced in the development process [2]. It provides a mechanism to assess and mitigate potential negative impacts on sustainability goals proactively.

At the global level, SEA is vital in identifying and addressing transboundary environmental issues, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. By promoting early environmental considerations, SEA helps develop more flexible and adaptive strategies to global environmental challenges. Furthermore, SEA facilitates international cooperation by providing a common framework within which countries can assess and manage the environmental impacts of key policies and programs. This is especially important in areas that share natural resources or face common environmental threats.

Within national contexts, SEA ensures that environmental considerations are integrated into policy-making and planning. This integration is crucial for countries seeking sustainable development because it aligns the goals of economic growth with environmental sustainability and social well-being. Many countries have integrated strategic environmental assessment into their legal and regulatory frameworks, recognizing its importance in achieving sustainable development. In doing so, SEA becomes a mandatory part of the planning process, ensuring that development initiatives are screened for their environmental impacts before implementation.

Strategic environmental assessment is particularly important for addressing national environmental challenges like water scarcity, deforestation, and urban sprawl. By applying SEA, countries can design their development strategies to mitigate these challenges and effectively enhance national resilience and sustainability [1].

In Egypt, the importance of SEA is underscored by the country's unique environmental challenges and development aspirations. Egypt faces issues such as water resource management, given its dependence on the Nile River, and the need for sustainable urban and agricultural development to support a growing population [3]. Incorporating SEA into its development planning allows Egypt to proactively address these challenges, ensuring that development projects contribute to rather than detract from sustainability goals. Furthermore, aligning the SEA with Egypt's sustainable development goals can help the country meet its international commitments towards sustainable development while meeting local environmental, social, and economic needs.

3 SEA overview and evolution

The emergence and development of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) represents a major shift in environmental management, recognizing the need to integrate environmental considerations early into planning and policy-making processes. SEA has evolved from a tool designed to mitigate environmental impacts to a comprehensive framework integrating environmental considerations into strategic decision-making, ensuring sustainable outcomes across various sectors [4]. This development reflects a broader understanding of sustainability and the complex interactions between environmental, social, and economic factors.

The roots of the SEA date back to the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which led to the recognition of the importance of assessing the environmental impacts of large projects [5]. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 in the United States is often cited as the seminal legislation that introduced the concept of environmental impact assessment (EIA), which laid the foundation for strategic environmental assessment. While EIA has focused on specific projects, the need for a more strategic upfront approach to influencing policies, plans, and programs (PPPs) before decisions are made has been recognized [4].

Over the past decades, SEA has evolved to address the limitations of project-level EIA by applying a more comprehensive and proactive approach to environmental assessment [5]. Several key developments drove this development:

  • Global environmental agreements: International agreements and declarations, such as the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992), emphasized the importance of integrating environmental considerations into the development process. These global commitments have stimulated the national governments' adoption of strategic environmental assessment frameworks.

  • Policy integration: Realizing that environmental sustainability cannot be achieved solely through reactive measures has led to integrating strategic environmental assessment into broader policy-making processes. This transformation aimed to integrate environmental considerations into policies, plans, and programs from early inception.

  • Sustainable development: The concept of sustainable development, which balances environmental, social, and economic considerations, emphasizes the need for strategic environmental assessment. Strategic environmental assessment has become a tool to prevent environmental damage and promote sustainable outcomes through strategic planning.

  • 4. Participatory approaches: The development of SEA has also seen an increasing focus on stakeholder engagement. Involving the public and stakeholders in the SEA process ensures that diverse perspectives are considered, improves decision-making quality, and promotes greater transparency and accountability.

  • 5.Methodological advances: Developing methodologies and guidelines for conducting SEA has been pivotal. These methodologies provide practitioners with the tools to effectively assess public–private partnerships' environmental impacts and integrate environmental considerations into decision-making processes.

The pivotal role of SEA in strategic decision-making lies in its ability to influence policies, plans, and programs at a stage when the potential to shape sustainable outcomes is most significant. By assessing environmental impacts and incorporating environmental considerations upfront, SEA helps avoid or mitigate negative impacts and promote positive outcomes [6]. This proactive approach supports the development of strategies that are more sustainable, resilient, and consistent with environmental objectives.

Furthermore, SEA facilitates a more integrated and comprehensive assessment than project-level EIA, considering cumulative impacts and broader strategic alternatives. It encourages coordination between sectors and helps align development and environmental sustainability goals.

4 The necessity of harmonizing SEA with the UN SDGs within Egypt

Harmonizing Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) within Egypt is beneficial and necessary for several reasons (Fig. 1). Egypt's environmental challenges and ambitions for sustainable growth are deeply intertwined with the global sustainability agenda, making the alignment of SEA with the SDGs crucial for effective and sustainable development planning.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Harmonizing SEA with the UN SDGs within Egypt

Full size image

4.1 Addressing environmental challenges

Egypt faces a unique set of environmental challenges that are critical to its development path. These factors include water scarcity, desertification, pollution, and vulnerability to climate change impacts such as sea level rise affecting the Nile Delta [7]. Each of these challenges poses a significant threat to Egypt's economic stability, food security, and the health of its population.

Aligning the strategic environmental assessment with the sustainable development goals enables Egypt to proactively assess and mitigate the environmental impacts of its development policies and projects. This alignment ensures that development efforts are sustainable and resilient to environmental risks. For example, integrating SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 13 (Climate Action) into SEA processes can guide water resource management planning and climate adaptation strategies that are critical to Egypt's sustainability.

4.2 Supporting sustainable growth ambitions

Egypt's Vision 2030 is consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals, which aim to achieve comprehensive and sustainable growth. This vision emphasizes economic development, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability as interconnected pillars that support the country's progress towards becoming a more prosperous and sustainable society [8].

By aligning SEA with the Sustainable Development Goals, Egypt can ensure that its development projects and policies are designed to support these ambitions. This approach facilitates a balanced consideration of economic, social, and environmental factors in the planning stages, leading to results that contribute to sustainable growth without compromising the country's environmental assets or the well-being of future generations.

4.3 Enhancing policy coherence and efficiency

Integrating SEA with the SDGs enhances policy coherence across sectors and levels of governance. It encourages a holistic approach to development planning, where environmental sustainability is not an afterthought but an essential element [9]. This integration would enhance the efficiency of government initiatives by avoiding policy conflicts and duplication, thus improving the use of resources and maximizing the benefits of sustainable development efforts.

For Egypt, which faces complex development challenges, aligning the SEA with the SDGs could expedite efforts toward achieving sustainable growth goals. It ensures that environmental considerations are integrated into all development projects, from renewable energy projects to urban expansion plans, making sustainability a guiding principle rather than a compliance requirement.

4.4 Strengthening international commitments and collaboration

Egypt's commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals reflects its role on the global stage as a responsible member of the international community. By aligning the SEA with the Sustainable Development Goals, Egypt reaffirms its commitment to global sustainability goals and opens avenues for international cooperation and support [8]. This consensus would facilitate access to technical and financial assistance from global partners and promote environmentally sustainable projects compatible with Egypt's development ambitions. Moreover, this coordination positions Egypt as a leader in sustainable development in the region, which may inspire neighboring countries to adopt similar integrated approaches. It demonstrates how national development goals can be achieved in line with global commitments to the environment and sustainability.

5 Contextual framework in Egypt

The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in Egypt is part of the country's broader environmental management and sustainability efforts, which aim to integrate environmental considerations into plans, programs, and policies that may have significant environmental impacts [10]. The current status of SEA in Egypt includes several key aspects, including legal, institutional, and procedural frameworks.

5.1 Legal framework

The legal basis for SEA in Egypt is based on Environment Law No. 4 of 1994, as amended by Law No. 9 of 2009. This law establishes the legal basis for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and, therefore, can be interpreted to support the principles of SEA. Although SEA does not have a specific reference in the legislation, the principles underpinning it are supported by the general requirements for environmental assessments and the precautionary principle to avoid significant environmental damage [11].

5.2 Institutional framework

The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Authority (EEAA) is the central government body responsible for coordinating and supervising environmental protection and conservation activities in Egypt, including processes related to strategic environmental assessment. The Environmental Affairs Agency operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Environment and is responsible for ensuring that environmental considerations are integrated into development planning at all levels [10]. It collaborates closely with other governmental, non-governmental organizations, and international bodies to enhance Egypt's environmental management capabilities.

5.3 Procedural framework

Although SEA in Egypt is not clearly detailed in legal texts, procedural aspects can be drawn from EIA procedures, which are well-established (Fig. 2). These procedures typically include screening to determine whether a plan or program requires a full environmental assessment, determining the scope to determine which environmental impacts should be considered, conducting the assessment itself, and then reviewing and monitoring the implementation of the plan or program. Public participation is essential to the EIA process, suggesting its importance in SEA. Moreover, the EEAA provides guidelines and standards for conducting environmental impact assessments, which can be adapted for strategic environmental assessment in the absence of specific guidelines for strategic environmental assessment [11]. These considerations include biodiversity, cultural heritage, water resources, air quality, and social and economic factors.

Fig. 2
figure 2

SEA process in Egypt

Full size image

Despite existing frameworks, implementing SEA in Egypt faces many challenges, including needing more specific legislation, building capacity for effective implementation, and expanding public awareness and participation. However, Egypt has demonstrated a commitment to improving its environmental assessment processes, driven in part by international cooperation and agreements and national priorities for sustainable development [12].

6 Comparative international analysis: insights and adaptation strategies for Egypt

Integrating strategic environmental assessment (SEA) with the sustainable development goals (SDGs) is crucial for promoting sustainable development worldwide. A comparative international analysis can significantly benefit Egypt's efforts to align SEA with SDGs. This section delves into the comparative analysis, showcasing how insights from other countries can inform and enhance Egypt’s SEA practices.

For this analysis, countries with notable success in integrating SEA with SDGs were selected based on criteria such as environmental challenges similar to those faced by Egypt (e.g., water scarcity, desertification), governance structures, and their stage of SDG implementation progress. The chosen case studies focus on countries with effective stakeholder engagement, robust legal frameworks, and innovative monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. The following discussion presents the lesson learned identified from best practices selected.

  • Legal and Policy Frameworks: Countries like Denmark and Sweden have developed explicit legal mandates that require the integration of SDGs into SEA processes. These countries' experiences suggest that clear legal provisions can significantly enhance the coherence and effectiveness of SEA in supporting sustainable development objectives. Egypt could consider revising its environmental legislation to include specific references to SDGs, strengthening the legal basis for their integration into SEA.

  • Institutional Arrangements: Costa Rica's success story highlights the importance of centralized institutions tasked with overseeing SEA processes and ensuring their alignment with SDGs. These institutions facilitate cross-sectoral coordination and provide guidance and support to various stakeholders involved in SEA. Egypt could benefit from establishing or strengthening such institutional mechanisms to enhance coordination and oversight of SEA practices.

  • Stakeholder Engagement Processes: Countries like Canada have implemented innovative approaches to stakeholder engagement, utilizing digital platforms to broaden participation and ensure inclusivity. These practices ensure that diverse perspectives, including those of marginalized communities, are considered in SEA processes. Adapting such engagement strategies could enhance the inclusiveness and effectiveness of SEAs in Egypt.

  • Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanisms: The Netherlands' approach to integrating robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms into SEA processes offers valuable lessons for Egypt. By establishing specific indicators linked to SDGs and conducting regular reviews, the Netherlands has been able to assess the effectiveness of SEA in achieving sustainable development outcomes. Adopting similar frameworks could help Egypt track progress and make informed adjustments to SEA practices.

Adapting these international best practices to the Egyptian context involves recognizing Egypt's unique environmental, social, and economic challenges. It requires legislative reforms, institutional restructuring, and a shift towards more inclusive and participatory stakeholder engagement processes. Moreover, establishing robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms aligned with SDGs will be crucial for assessing progress and guiding future actions.

The comparative analysis underscores the value of international collaboration and knowledge exchange. Egypt could engage in bilateral or multilateral partnerships with countries that have excelled in integrating SEA with SDGs, facilitating the transfer of knowledge, experience, and best practices. Such collaborations can provide technical support, capacity building, and financial resources necessary for implementing the identified best practices.

7 Criteria for evaluating SEA-SDG alignment

Based on the theoretical discussion above, a set of criteria (Fig. 3) has been developed to assess the alignment between Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These criteria ensure that SEA processes contribute effectively to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, reflecting a comprehensive understanding of both sustainability principles and practical SEA applications (Table 1).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Criteria for evaluating SEA-SDG alignment

Full size image
Table 1 Criteria for Evaluating SEA-SDG Alignment
Full size table

The described criteria and indicators are integral to evaluating how Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) processes can effectively contribute to realizing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This involves a comprehensive framework that measures SEA performance and impact on environmental, social, and economic outcomes aligned with the SDGs. Implementing these standards requires a dedication to extensive empirical analysis. It requires stakeholders to engage in a continuous cycle of evaluation, knowledge acquisition, and iterative improvement. This approach guarantees the role of SEA as a dynamic instrument to promote sustainable development.

These elements underline the importance of a structured and proactive approach to integrating SEA into sustainable development initiatives. By adhering to these criteria and indicators, stakeholders can ensure that SEA processes meet and actively advance the achievement of the SDGs. This alignment is critical to fostering an environment where sustainable development can thrive, benefiting current and future generations.

8 Results

This section provides a general analysis of the alignment between SEA in Egypt and the UN SDGs. It delves into the general relationship between SEA procedures in Egypt and the pursuit of the SDGs, highlighting areas of strength, potential gaps, and opportunities for enhanced integration.

8.1 Integration of sustainability principles

This analysis will delve into the extent to which Egypt's SEA processes integrate sustainability's environmental, social and economic dimensions in line with the principles of the Sustainable Development Goals. It will focus on two indicators: sustainability in strategic environmental assessment and considering long-term impacts on social equity, environmental safety, and economic viability.

8.1.1 Inclusion of sustainability in SEA

In Egypt, SEA processes are primarily guided by environmental laws and regulations emphasizing integrating environmental considerations into planning and policy-making. Legal and institutional frameworks, primarily through the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, provide a basis for environmental assessment. However, the integration of comprehensive sustainability criteria covering social and economic dimensions and environmental considerations is less clear.

While environmental integrity is often the primary focus, the formal incorporation of social justice and economic viability criteria into SEA processes varies and may not be applied consistently across all SEAs [13]. This difference could stem from the lack of specific guidelines or capabilities that guide practitioners to integrate these broader sustainability principles fully.

The focus on environmental considerations is crucial and justified, given Egypt's significant environmental challenges, such as water scarcity, desertification, and pollution. However, as set out in the Sustainable Development Goals, sustainable development requires a balanced approach that equally values social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Incorporating these dimensions into SEA processes is essential to address complex sustainability challenges comprehensively and effectively.

8.1.2 Consideration of long-term impacts on social equity, environmental integrity, and economic viability

Strategic environmental assessments in Egypt tend to focus on the direct and medium-term environmental impacts of projects, plans, and programmers. The study of long-term impacts, especially those related to social justice and economic viability, is less clear. This may be due to challenges associated with predicting long-term outcomes, lack of long-term data and models, or prioritizing immediate development needs over long-term sustainability considerations.

To be fully aligned with the principles of the Sustainable Development Goals, SEA processes must include a long-term perspective that considers the future impacts of current decisions on social justice, environmental safety, and economic viability [14]. This includes not only forecasting potential impacts but also planning for sustainable development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Incorporating long-term impact considerations into strategic environmental assessments can help Egypt navigate its development path in a sustainable, fair, and economically viable way for all citizens.

8.2 Alignment with SDG framework

This analysis examines how Egypt's SEA objectives and indicators align with specific SDG objectives and indicators. It includes assessing the extent to which SEA in Egypt integrates SDG objectives and indicators into its operations, highlighting the direct links between SEA activities and the broader sustainable development goals set by the SDGs.

8.2.1 Number of SDG targets directly addressed in SEA

SEA processes in Egypt are designed primarily to integrate environmental considerations into strategic decision-making. The degree to which these processes explicitly address the SDGs varies, with a stronger focus on environmental goals (e.g., SDG 13 on climate action, SDG 14 on life below water, SDG 15 on life on Earth) due to the ecological nature of SEA. There is less evidence of direct alignment with the SDGs that focus on social and economic targets, such as SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 4 (quality education), and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), which are also critical components in sustainable development.

The clear integration of sustainable development goals within strategic environmental assessment processes in Egypt appears to be limited, which confirms the environmental goals. While addressing the environmental SDGs is crucial, the cross-cutting nature of the SDGs requires a broader approach. Incorporating a wide range of sustainable development goals into SEA objectives and indicators can enhance SEA contributions to sustainable development by ensuring that economic and social aspects are also considered in decision-making processes [2, 9].

8.2.2 Coherence between SEA indicators and SDG indicators

Coherence between the SEA indicators used in Egypt and the SDG indicators is essential to aligning the SEA with the SDGs. In practice, this coherence may be partial, as some SEA indicators align well with environmental SDG indicators but less so with indicators related to social and economic SDGs. This partial alignment may be due to the historical environmental focus of SEA processes and the complexity of incorporating a comprehensive set of SDG indicators into these assessments.

Strengthening coherence between SEA and SDG indicators requires a deliberate effort to expand the set of indicators used in SEA to include those that measure social equity, economic viability, and environmental integrity [15]. Doing so will improve alignment with the SDGs and provide a more comprehensive view of sustainability impacts, facilitating better-informed decisions that support the achievement of all SDGs.

8.3 Stakeholder participation and inclusivity

Assessing the alignment between Egypt's Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is vital to ensuring that SEA processes are democratic, transparent, and effective in incorporating a wide range of perspectives. This analysis focuses on the level of participation and quality in SEA processes in Egypt, highlighting inclusivity and representation of marginalized groups.

8.3.1 Diversity of stakeholders involved

In Egypt, stakeholder engagement in SEA processes has traditionally revolved around government agencies, project proponents, and, to some extent, the general public. However, the extent of systematic engagement of various stakeholders, including marginalized and vulnerable groups, varies across different SEA processes. While there are efforts to engage a broader range of stakeholders, consistent and structured participation of diverse groups remains an area for improvement.

The diversity of stakeholders involved in SEA processes is critical to inclusivity. Expanding stakeholder engagement to include groups such as local communities, indigenous peoples, women, youth, and economically disadvantaged sectors more comprehensively can enhance the relevance and acceptability of SEA findings [16]. This requires proactive outreach and enabling environments for all voices to be heard.

8.3.2 Mechanisms for inclusive participation

Mechanisms for ensuring inclusive participation in SEA processes in Egypt include public meetings, consultations, and, to some extent, online platforms. However, the effectiveness of these mechanisms in facilitating genuine and meaningful participation of all stakeholder groups, especially marginalized ones, can be limited by factors such as accessibility, awareness, and capacity to participate.

It is necessary to develop and implement more effective mechanisms for inclusive participation [17]. This includes leveraging technology to reach broader audiences, ensuring materials are available in accessible formats and languages, and providing capacity-building opportunities to enable meaningful contributions from all stakeholder groups.

8.3.3 Feedback integration into SEA decisions

Incorporating stakeholder views into SEA decisions in Egypt demonstrates a commitment to considering public input when making environmental decisions. However, transparency and traceability of how stakeholder feedback influences SEA decisions and outcomes could be improved to enhance trust and credibility in the SEA process.

A clear mechanism for documenting, considering, and integrating stakeholder feedback into SEA decisions is crucial [16]. This includes not only collecting feedback but also explaining how it was analyzed and how it influenced the evaluation's findings and recommendations. Promoting transparency in this process is crucial in building stakeholder confidence and ensuring the legitimacy of SEA processes.

8.4 Governance and institutional capacity

This analysis delves into the extent to which Egypt's governance and institutional frameworks support SEA processes, particularly concerning institutional arrangements and capacity-building efforts to integrate SEA with the Sustainable Development Goals. Effective governance and strong institutional capacity are essential for successfully implementing SEA and integrating SDG considerations. These elements ensure that SEA processes are conducted systematically and in line with best practices and contribute effectively to achieving broader sustainability goals.

8.4.1 Institutional arrangements for SEA

In Egypt, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) under the Ministry of Environment is the key institution responsible for environmental governance, including the oversight of SEA processes. While the EEAA has established a framework for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), the specific institutional arrangements for SEA, particularly with regard to incorporating SDG considerations, have not been clearly defined. The formalization of SEA processes and integration into broader planning and policy-making processes varies across sectors and levels of government.

Strengthening institutional arrangements for SEA involves clarifying the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders within and outside government and ensuring that these arrangements facilitate the effective integration of SEA into all relevant planning and policy-making processes [4]. This includes developing clear pathways for integrating SDG considerations into strategic environmental assessments ensuring that sustainability objectives are systematically considered in strategic decisions.

8.4.2 Availability of guidelines and capacity-building programs for SEA-SDG integration

The availability of comprehensive guidelines and capacity-building programs specifically designed to support the integration of SEA and the SDGs is critical to enhancing the effectiveness of SEA in contributing to the SDGs. While there are guidelines for conducting environmental impact assessments and some resources that touch on SEA principles, specific guidance, and training focusing on integrating SEA with SDG considerations is limited. This gap affects the ability of practitioners and stakeholders to align SEA processes with sustainability goals effectively.

Developing specific guidelines for integrating SEA and the SDGs and implementing capacity-building programs are essential steps towards strengthening institutional capacity to support the implementation of SEA and the integration of the SDGs. The guidelines should provide clear instructions on identifying relevant SDGs, assessing potential impacts, and integrating SDG targets and indicators into SEA processes [18]. Likewise, capacity-building programs should enhance practitioners' and stakeholders' understanding and skills, enabling them to effectively participate in SEA processes and contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

8.5 Evidence-based decision-making

This analysis depends on assessing the degree to which SEA processes are supported by strong scientific evidence and local knowledge, which is essential for making informed and sustainable decisions. Integrating both types of knowledge is crucial to understanding the environmental, social and economic impacts of policies, plans and programmers, thus facilitating sustainable, contextually appropriate decision-making and support of the SDGs.

8.5.1 Quality and relevance of data used in SEA

In Egypt, the quality and importance of data used in strategic environmental assessments varies. While there are cases where high-quality environmental data have informed strategic environmental assessments, challenges remain concerning accessibility, timeliness, and detail of the data, especially in areas important for making informed decisions. The availability of comprehensive socio-economic and specific environmental impact data can sometimes be limited, affecting the ability to assess potential impacts and outcomes fully.

The foundation of an effective SEA is using accurate and relevant data that includes environmental, social, and economic dimensions. Improving the quality and availability of data used in SEA involves strengthening national and local data collection and management systems and ensuring that data are up-to-date, comprehensive, and accessible to SEA practitioners [16]. This includes using new data collection and analysis technologies, such as remote sensing, GIS mapping, and participatory data collection methods that can provide more detailed and localized insights.

8.5.2 Incorporation of local and indigenous knowledge

Integrating local and indigenous knowledge into SEA processes in Egypt is an area with great potential for improvement. While scientific data is critical in informing strategic environmental assessments, local and indigenous knowledge provides invaluable insights into the social, cultural, and environmental context, offering perspectives that traditional data collection methods may not capture. Recognizing and integrating this knowledge can enrich understanding potential impacts and improve SEA findings' cultural and social significance [18].

Local and indigenous knowledge systems provide deep insights into environmental management, traditional practices, and historical changes, contributing to more accurate and context-aware SEA processes. Facilitating the systematic integration of this knowledge requires the establishment of platforms for dialogue and exchange where local communities and indigenous peoples can share their insights directly with SEA practitioners. This can be supported by developing guidelines and methodologies that explicitly recognize and value these forms of knowledge within the SEA framework.

8.6 Monitoring, reporting, and evaluation (MRE)

This analysis focuses on the standard of mine risk education in the context of strategic environmental assessment, examining the extent to which mine risk education mechanisms exist, their alignment with sustainable development goal monitoring frameworks, and the extent to which SEA processes can adapt based on the results of mine risk education. Effective MRE mechanisms are essential to ensure that strategic environmental assessments comply with environmental regulations and contribute meaningfully to achieving sustainable development goals, including the SDGs. MRE provides the necessary feedback loop to evaluate the impacts of policies, plans, and programmers and facilitate continuous improvement in SEA processes.

8.6.1 Existence of MRE frameworks for SEA

In Egypt, the institutionalization of mine risk education frameworks specifically designed for environmental and social assessment is in its developing stages. While general guidelines and regulations provide for monitoring and reporting on the environmental impacts of projects, extending these frameworks to broader strategic level assessments and aligning them with the SDGs is less clear. This indicates a gap in the formal establishment of MRE mechanisms designed explicitly for sexual exploitation and abuse.

Developing and institutionalizing comprehensive MRE frameworks for SEA can significantly enhance the capacity to track and evaluate the effectiveness of SEA processes [16]. These frameworks should focus on environmental outcomes and social and economic impacts, providing a comprehensive view of SEA contributions to sustainable development. The lack of specific MRE frameworks for SEA indicates an opportunity to strengthen management and institutional capacity in this area.

8.6.2 Alignment of SEA MRE with SDG monitoring frameworks

Given the emerging phase of MRE frameworks for environmental and social assessment in Egypt, aligning these frameworks with SDG monitoring mechanisms is also an emerging area. The SDGs provide a comprehensive set of targets and indicators that can significantly enhance the monitoring and evaluation of SEA results if integrated effectively [19]. However, a clear link between SEA MRE practices and SDG monitoring frameworks has not been widely documented or standardized.

Aligning MRE SEA mechanisms with SDG monitoring frameworks would provide a structured and consistent basis for assessing SEA contributions to achieving the SDGs. This alignment can facilitate the identification of specific SDG targets affected by SEA processes, enabling targeted improvements and interventions. Strengthening this consensus requires collaborative efforts between environmental authorities, national coordination bodies for the Sustainable Development Goals, and other relevant stakeholders.

8.6.3 Adaptability of SEA processes based on MRE findings

Adaptability in SEA processes in Egypt, based on the results of MRE activities, is critical to improve the effectiveness of SEA iteratively. While there are cases of SEA modifications in response to monitoring findings, a systematic approach to incorporating MRE findings into SEA process modifications is less clear.

Establishing mechanisms to regularly update and adapt SEA methodologies and practices based on MRE results is essential to ensure that SEAs remain relevant and effective over time [20]. This includes reviewing SEA guidelines, enhancing stakeholder engagement strategies, and updating impact assessment methodologies in response to identified strengths and weaknesses. Increasing adaptability in SEA processes requires a commitment to continuous learning and improvement within the governing bodies and institutions responsible for implementing SEA.

8.7 Policy coherence and integration

This analysis focuses on the criterion of policy coherence and integration in the context of SEA in Egypt, assessing the extent to which SEAs are aligned with other relevant national and local policies and mechanisms in place to resolve policy conflicts. Policy coherence ensures that SEA processes are not isolated but integrated with the country's broader political landscape, including environmental regulations, development plans, and strategies consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals. This integration is crucial to maximizing SEA's effectiveness as a sustainable development tool.

8.7.1 Evidence of policy alignment and integration

In Egypt, SEA processes are generally designed to be consistent with national environmental laws and regulations. However, the integration of SEA with broader policy objectives, including those outlined in Egypt's Vision 2030 and its alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals, varies. While the need for policy coherence is recognized, practical evidence of integrating SEA with broader policy objectives and plans could be strengthened. The complexity of Egypt's political landscape, with multiple overlapping goals and sometimes competing priorities, poses a challenge to achieving complete policy alignment.

For SEA processes to effectively support broader policy objectives consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals, they must be systematically integrated into planning and policy-making frameworks at national and local levels [18]. This requires aligning SEA objectives with other policy objectives and ensuring that SEA findings and recommendations are considered in policy development and implementation. Strengthening evidence of policy alignment includes improving cross-sector collaboration and ensuring that SEA is integral to the policy development process.

8.7.2 Mechanisms for resolving policy conflicts

Mechanisms for resolving policy conflicts that arise during SEA processes in Egypt are critical to maintaining policy coherence. While regulatory frameworks provide some guidance on resolving environmental impact conflicts, specific mechanisms for addressing broader policy conflicts affecting the effectiveness of SEA and alignment with the SDGs have not been clearly defined. Developing robust mechanisms to identify, manage, and resolve policy conflicts is essential to strengthen the coherence and integration of SEA processes with broader policy objectives [5]. This includes establishing clear procedures for conflict resolution, enhancing stakeholder engagement to identify potential conflicts early in the SEA process, and establishing inter-agency coordination bodies tasked with ensuring policy coherence, especially concerning implementing the Sustainable Development Goals.

9 Discussion

The analysis confirms Egypt's progress in integrating environmental considerations into planning and policy-making processes through its legal and institutional frameworks, which the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency primarily leads. This reflects a fundamental recognition of the importance of environmental safety, especially in light of Egypt's significant environmental challenges, such as water scarcity, desertification, and pollution. However, while environmental concerns are well addressed, a notable gap exists in incorporating broader sustainability principles that include social and economic dimensions into SEA processes. In addition, the analysis reveals a lack of consideration of long-term impacts, particularly concerning social equity and economic viability, suggesting the need for a more comprehensive and forward-looking approach to decision-making.

9.1 Strengths

Egypt's commitment to integrating environmental considerations into its planning and policy-making processes through its legal and institutional frameworks, primarily led by the EEAA, is commendable. This demonstrates a proactive stance towards addressing environmental challenges, which are critical to sustainable development. The focus on environmental integrity in SEA processes is consistent with pressing environmental issues in Egypt, indicating a solid foundation for environmental management.

9.2 Weaknesses

Despite focusing on environmental considerations, the analysis highlights a notable gap in integrating comprehensive sustainability criteria that cover social and economic dimensions alongside environmental factors. This indicates a lack of comprehensive decision-making, which may hinder achieving broader sustainable development goals. In addition, limited attention to long-term impacts, especially concerning social equity and economic viability, reflects a myopic approach that may harm the long-term sustainability of development initiatives.

9.3 Challenges and gaps

  • Institutional coordination and capacity constraints: The analysis reveals challenges in institutional coordination and capacity constraints, which hinder the effective integration of SEA with the broader sustainable development goals. Clear guidelines and capacity-building efforts are needed to enhance the coordination and effectiveness of SEA processes across different sectors and levels of government.

  • Limited and inclusive stakeholder engagement: The analysis highlights stakeholders' lack of inclusive engagement, especially marginalized groups, in SEA processes. This indicates a gap in ensuring inclusivity and diversity of perspectives, essential to addressing sustainable development challenges' complex and multifaceted nature. More structured and comprehensive engagement mechanisms are needed to ensure the meaningful participation of all stakeholders.

  • Risk education frameworks and alignment with SDG monitoring: The absence of specific monitoring, reporting, and evaluation frameworks designed for SEA and their alignment with SDG monitoring mechanisms indicates the need for further development and standardization in monitoring, reporting, and evaluation practices. Strengthening mine risk education mechanisms can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of SEA processes and their contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals.

  • Policy coherence and integration: Although the importance of policy coherence and integration with broader national and local policies, including Egypt's Vision 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals, is recognized, empirical evidence on the integration of SEA with these goals is limited. This highlights the need for more robust mechanisms to integrate SEA objectives with broader policy objectives and ensure alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals.

By addressing these challenges and gaps, Egypt can enhance the effectiveness of strategic environmental assessment practices in achieving sustainable development goals. This may include strengthening institutional coordination, enhancing stakeholder engagement mechanisms, developing specific MRE frameworks tailored to SEA, and ensuring greater alignment with broader policy objectives and the Sustainable Development Goals. By adopting a more comprehensive and integrated approach to environmental and social assessment, Egypt can better navigate its development path in an environmentally sustainable, socially just, and economically viable way for all citizens.

10 Conclusion

The study identifies essential strengths and weaknesses of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) practices in Egypt concerning their alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While Egypt demonstrates a commitment to integrating environmental considerations into planning and policy-making processes, there are notable gaps in integrating sustainability's social and economic dimensions and alignment with broader sustainable development goals. Key findings include:

10.1 Policy implications

Policy formulation in Egypt should focus on addressing identified weaknesses in SEA practices to better align with the SDGs and promote sustainable development. Critical political implications include:

  • Integrating comprehensive sustainability criteria: Policy frameworks should provide for the integration of comprehensive sustainability criteria, which include social, economic, and environmental dimensions, into strategic environmental assessment processes. This would ensure a more holistic approach to decision-making and support achieving the broader sustainable development goals.

  • Strengthening institutional coordination and capacity building: Policies should prioritize strengthening institutional coordination and capacity building efforts to overcome challenges related to integrating SEA with broader sustainable development goals. This may include clarifying roles and responsibilities, providing training and resources, and enhancing collaboration among relevant stakeholders.

  • Promote long-term thinking: Policies should encourage considering long-term impacts, especially social equity and economic viability, in SEA processes. This may include developing guidelines and methodologies for assessing and addressing long-term sustainability impacts and enhancing research and data collection on future trends and scenarios.

10.2 Practice recommendations

Practitioners involved in SEA in Egypt can take several practical steps to improve alignment with SDGs and enhance the effectiveness of their processes:

  • Comprehensive assessment: Conduct a comprehensive assessment of sustainability standards, including social, economic, and environmental dimensions, in strategic environmental assessment processes. This involves going beyond traditional environmental impact assessments to incorporate broader sustainability considerations into decision-making.

  • Stakeholder engagement: Strengthen stakeholder engagement mechanisms to ensure the meaningful participation of various stakeholders, including marginalized groups. This may include developing tailored awareness strategies, providing capacity-building opportunities, and creating platforms for dialogue and exchange.

  • Regular monitoring and evaluation: Establish robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the effectiveness of strategic environmental assessment processes and their contributions to achieving sustainable development goals. This includes collecting relevant data, analyzing the results, and incorporating feedback into decision-making processes.

10.3 Future research

Future research in this area could focus on addressing the following areas:

  • Impact of policy reforms: Examining the impact of policy reforms aimed at strengthening the integration of strategic environmental assessment with Egypt's broader sustainable development goals. This could include assessing changes in SEA practices, institutional arrangements, and policy outcomes over time.

  • Comparative analysis: Conduct comparative analyses of strategic environmental assessment practices in Egypt and other countries to identify best practices and lessons learned. This can provide valuable insights into strategies to improve alignment with the SDGs and promote sustainable development.

  • Long-term sustainability impacts: Exploring the long-term sustainability impacts of development projects and policies assessed through strategic environmental assessments. This could include longitudinal studies tracking the environmental, social, and economic consequences of decisions made based on SEA assessments.

By addressing these research trends, future studies can enhance the effectiveness of SEA practices in Egypt and promote sustainable development outcomes consistent with the SDGs.