Farming households in Indonesia are highly dependent on the surrounding environment as the natural resources that underpin sustainable livelihoods1. Environmental changes, driven by climate change and human activities, directly impact their livelihoods and well-being2. Prolonged droughts, as one clear example of climate change impacts and the massive expansion of environmental management, pose severe challenges for farmers. In this context, a deep understanding of how farmers utilize ecological landscapes to meet their needs and build food security is crucial3. As a form of local wisdom in managing natural resources, agroforestry systems have great potential in creating sustainable adaptation strategies4. Knowledge of effective agroforestry practices could be vital to creating resilient food systems and preserving ecosystems for future generations.

In agroecological practice, agroforestry on farms is an essential strategy many farmers adopt to improve household livelihoods4. The utilization of trees in agricultural systems provides a variety of crucial ecosystem services5. Some of the tangible benefits of agroforestry include increased yields of vegetables and fruits6, provision of animal and fish feed7, increased soil moisture, and improved nutrient cycling8. These ecosystem services directly contribute to improving the livelihoods and welfare of farming households, especially in rural areas such as Bone Regency9. Furthermore, agroforestry also contributes to mitigating disasters such as landslides and floods and supporting adaptation to climate change10,11. Trees on farms can sequester carbon, contributing to global climate change mitigation efforts12,13,14,15. Holistically, using trees in agricultural systems is at the core of providing vital ecosystem services to farmers. These systems support household fulfillment, health, poverty alleviation, and food security in rural areas16.

Located on the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate that is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Phenomena such as El Niño-induced long dry seasons, rising temperatures, and rainfall variability directly threaten ecosystems and impact the well-being and livelihoods of farming households17. Facing these challenges, farmers in Indonesia have adopted various adaptation strategies. Some of the commonly practiced strategies include planting more adaptive crop varieties17, modifying annual cropping intensity18, adjusting planting times19, strengthening social capital, and migration20. While factors influencing farmers’ adaptation strategies have been widely studied21, little research examines explicitly how climate change affects ecosystem services in Indonesia22. National-scale research linking farmers’ adaptation strategies with climate change is limited. Qualitative approaches have great potential to provide a deeper understanding of how agricultural systems adapt in the face of climate change23.

The theoretical framework of this research focuses on the central role of farmers in managing agricultural land, both natural and managed, as a form of adaptation and utilization of natural resources. This approach emphasizes the close link between social and ecological capital in building farmers’ resilience24,25,26. By adopting the farmer livelihood framework model (Fig. 1)27, this study aims to 1) Describe the understanding of farmer households in utilizing the environment as an adaptation strategy to climate change; 2) Analyze farmers’ responses, particularly in the use of agroforestry, as a form of adaptation to climate change. The farmer livelihood framework model was chosen because it provides a comprehensive picture of the complex interactions between rural farmers and the surrounding ecological system.

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Social organization model of the Enrekang agricultural community 27.

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This theoretical framework emphasizes the importance of the diversity of resources and options available to farming households. These resources include ecosystem, economic, technical, and social aspects. Each action that farmers take to utilize these resources demands short-term flexibility strategies. This flexibility is reflected in three main aspects: 1) Farmers’ ability to manage and utilize various ecosystem components; 2) Knowledge and practices of crop cultivation that are economically valuable and adaptive to changing conditions; 3) Farmers’ ability to diversify income sources and livelihood strategies. Meanwhile, adaptation strategies focus on farmers’ long-term actions to deal with challenges and changes in environmental conditions every year. These adaptation strategies build on short-term flexibility and are reflected in the flexibility action indicator. This indicator reflects a broader range of long-term adaptation knowledge and practices. This theoretical framework’s relationship between farmers and ecosystems is dynamic and mutually influencing. Farmers must continuously adapt to environmental variations and changes while their actions shape ecosystem dynamics.

To achieve these objectives, an analysis of agroforestry systems in Enrekang Regency, Indonesia, is needed to fully describe the cropping models practiced, the factors that drive the use of agroforestry farming, a description of farm household behavior about climate change, and farmers’ adaptation strategies to improve livelihoods and welfare. The theoretical basis of this research is that these factors are central to better ecosystem utilization, adaptation, and ecology. These factors can be identified by 1) ecosystem utilization, 2) knowledge of ecological benefits, and 3) livelihood improvement strategies and diversification through further application of knowledge from stakeholders, extension workers, communities, and farmers. This research will provide additional literature related to knowledge of rural community-based ecosystem utilization on a longitudinal scale through identification and analysis of agricultural land use and actions taken by farmers in creating food security.

Method

Research site

This research was conducted in the Enrekang Regency (Fig. 2), South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Enrekang Regency is situated in the central part of Indonesia, on the island of Sulawesi. Five villages within Enrekang Regency were purposively selected for this study. The selection process considered village landscape data provided by the Central Bureau of Statistics, with each village pre-numbered to ensure a representative sample. The decision to focus on Enrekang Regency was based on several factors:

  1. 1.

    Geographical and Cultural Representation: The five selected villages offer a diverse representation of the geographical and cultural characteristics within Enrekang Regency, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the communities in this area.

  2. 2.

    Population Density and Distribution: In 2022, Enrekang Regency had a population of 225,172 people, with a population density of 126 people/km2. The region exhibits variations in population density, with the highest density in Enrekang Sub-district (125 people/km2) and the lowest in Bungin Sub-district (approximately 23 people/km2). This range provides insights into the potential influence of population density on the study’s findings.

  3. 3.

    Economic Profile: Most of the population in Enrekang Regency relies on the agricultural sector for their livelihood, with subsistence farming being the most prevalent form of agriculture. This economic reliance on agriculture makes it a relevant and essential context for a study on climate change and biodiversity, particularly given that 70% of agricultural production consists of horticulture grown under rainfed farming systems27.

  4. 4.

    Poverty Rate: Enrekang Regency has a poverty rate of 12.39%, exceeding the national average of 9.36%. This highlights the region’s socioeconomic vulnerability and underscores the potential impacts of climate change on livelihoods and biodiversity.

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Area of research.

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Data collection

Data collection took place over two months, from June to July 2024, coinciding with the middle of Indonesia’s dry season. This timing aimed to enhance the accuracy of direct observations regarding farmers’ adaptations to erratic climate change. The data collection process involved several stages:

  1. 1.

    Initial discussion forum: A discussion forum was held in June in Cemba village, involving 25 farmer households. The village government assisted in selecting participants based on age and gender, prioritizing households actively engaged in farming during the dry season and those where a female farmer was the head of the household28. This approach aimed to encourage diverse perspectives and knowledge sharing. The forum was moderated by someone fluent in the local Enrekang language to facilitate understanding and participation. Participants included farmers with specialized knowledge, representatives from farming communities, and female farmers who owned farmland but were not heads of households. While the primary language used was Bahasa Indonesia, the moderator also utilized local languages to ensure inclusivity and comprehension.

  2. 2.

    Participant observation: To complement the data gathered from the discussion forum, participant observation was conducted on 15 farms29. This method involved directly observing farming practices and plant diversity on the farms. An ordinal scale (1–3) was employed to assess the frequency of specific plant species within the farmlands. A rating of 1 signified rarely found plants, two indicated plants in approximately half of the farm area, and three represented plants found throughout most of the farm. During these observations, researchers also interviewed farmers about the benefits of the observed plants, providing insights into the perceived value of different species. The findings from observations and interviews were later re-confirmed and elaborated upon during the discussion forums.

  3. 3.

    Semi-structured In-depth interviews: In addition to the farmer-centric data collection methods, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with representatives of local government and non-governmental organizations. These interviews aimed to gather diverse perspectives and specialized knowledge from stakeholders who play a crucial role in shaping agricultural practices and policies within Enrekang Regency.

Data analysis

This research combines data from previous studies, observations, discussion forum results, and in-depth interviews. In-depth interviews were conducted semi-structured with local government and non-governmental organizations. Data were analyzed for interviews and discussion forums using participant response matrices to look at patterns in farming activities, farmers’ social cohesion, and the resources of farming households participating in discussion forum activities30. Answers from different participants showed several indicators of local agroecological systems, which were analyzed for common indicators related to agricultural knowledge, attitudes, and activities31 by combining categories, theories, and data analysis32. The noting method was applied to examine the relationship of common plant species or species that grow in situ on similar farms33.

Result

Agriculture methods category

Most farming systems in Enrekang are based on agroforestry systems34, especially in the mountainous areas. Based on Table 1, there are five central agroforestry activity systems reported by farmer households. Among the five systems, mountain farming is the most dominant system, practiced by 45% of participants. This finding aligns with previous research showing that mountain farming systems are standard in Indonesia, in Enrekang. Apart from mountain farming, farmers in Enrekang also manage agricultural land in the lowlands. Some agricultural land in the mountains and lowlands is allocated for market gardens. Farmers in Enrekang are increasingly cultivating various horticultural crops in dedicated market gardens, recognizing the potential to boost their household income. This shift is evident in the experience of Mrs. R, a 45-year-old farmer who shared:

"In the past, we grew vegetables just to eat ourselves. However, two years ago, we started growing more shallots, chilies, and lettuce in the garden. We sell the harvest to the market every week. Not bad, it can add to the family income."

Table 1 Utilized agroforestry techniques in Enrekang.
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Intercropping agroforestry systems represent the second most common practice on Enrekang farms, employed by 20% of participants. A prime example of this system is the intercropping of maize and coconut. As Mr. B, a 50-year-old farmer, explained:

"When the coconut trees are young, their spacing is still wide. So, instead of leaving that space empty, we plant maize there. That way, we can harvest twice – first the maize and later the coconuts."

This cropping pattern lasts several years until the coconut plants mature, providing sufficient shade for the maize plants. This research defines a living fence as a multifunctional agricultural practice that serves as a garden border and protects crops from wind and erosion. In Enrekang, the application of agroforestry practices, such as live fencing, varies according to each farmer’s specific needs. While approximately 15% of farmers utilize live fences within their systems, those with more extensive landholdings often dedicate portions of their property to forest farming alongside intercropping. Furthermore, some farmers, like Mr. J, a 55-year-old farmer interviewed in June 2024, have adopted agrosilvopastoral systems. He explains:

"On this farm, chickens are also raised in addition to spinach and avocado trees. The old or damaged spinach leaves serve as chicken feed, and the chickens help control pest insects. Their manure, in turn, provides fertilizer for the spinach and avocado trees. This integrated system proves to be both economical and environmentally friendly."

This system integrates goats, cows, or chickens into the agroforestry system. The presence of livestock provides dual benefits, utilizing crop residues as feed and, at the same time, providing organic fertilizer for the soil.

Diverse agriculture species

The types of plants often used in agroforestry farming activities in Enrekang can be seen in Table 2, as well as the level of use of these plant species to measure biodiversity utilization. Allium cepa var. aggregatum, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, Capsicum annuum, Zingiber officinale, Alpinia galanga, Curcuma longa, Cocos nucifera, Theobroma cacao, Coffea arabica, and Zea mays are the most dominant food crops utilized by farm households. As many as 80% of the cultivated crops are multifunctional, not only as a source of food but also as medicine, nutrition, green manure, and a source of income. Vegetables, biopharmaceutical crops, and secondary crops provide added value for marketing. Farmers also do post-harvest processing, such as coffee beans into arabica coffee. While most agroforestry products are intended for income generation, a small portion is used for household consumption.

Table 2 Plant species identified in agroforestry in Enrekang.
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Farmers in some parts of Indonesia are integrating naturalized plant species in situ into their farming systems. Information on beneficial species that can improve household income and nutrition is disseminated through various parties, such as village governments, agricultural extension workers, and private institutions. Local governments actively propagate some of these plant species to support food security. Each agricultural extension officer in rural areas has an experimental garden and collects cultivated species suitable for the region’s characteristics. Village governments also support planting diverse crop species across the agricultural landscape. Farmers recognize that cultivating diverse crop species within their farming systems can lead to several benefits, including improved family nutrition and well-being and increased agricultural yields. Mrs A, a 40-year-old farmer interviewed in June 2024, shared her experience:

"In the past, this garden was only planted with coffee. However, after attending an agricultural extension program, the decision was made to start planting various crops, such as vegetables, fruits, and medicinal plants. As a result, the family has become healthier because they can eat more nutritious food. The harvest is also more diverse, so if the price of coffee is down, there is still income from other crops."

Land tenure and increased agricultural production are the main driving factors in agroforestry systems. Nonetheless, farmer households rarely cultivate native plant species in nurseries. They reason that native plant species are already widespread in forest ecosystems and do not need to be cultivated. Farmers’ utilization of native plant species is generally limited to natural regeneration activities, collection of non-timber forest products, pruning, and in situ plant selection on farms.

While not all farming households own large tracts of land, mountain farming practices are common in the region. Field observations and discussion forums with farmers confirmed this. The limited mountain farmland is optimally utilized throughout the year in dry and rainy seasons. Mountain farming focuses on producing food for household consumption, such as vegetables and fruits. The location of the land close to home allows women and children to participate in managing mountain farms.

Agriculture system topography community

Human settlements can threaten natural ecosystems, including biodiversity and livelihood strategies of neighboring communities23. Human settlement patterns are closely linked to agricultural systems. Therefore, understanding land utilization by farming households needs to be studied further. This study examines two village topographic models and their influence on farming systems and activities. Topographic model A represents the three villages inhabited by farming households, while topographic model B represents the other two villages in this study (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
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Topography arrangement.

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A notable disparity between the two topographical configurations becomes evident upon closer examination. In the first spatial arrangement (Fig. 3A), settlements are closely knit, with the village encircled by agricultural fields. In stark contrast, the second spatial arrangement (Fig. 3B) showcases a concentration of agricultural land at the heart of the farming households’ settlements, as detailed in Table 2. Those who opted for topography B highlighted their primary incentive, which was to facilitate the cultivation of crops and streamline land supervision. Their rationale hinged on the idea that clearing and cultivating farmland in these proximate areas proved more manageable than tending to farmland far from the farming households. Mrs C, a 39-year-old farmer interviewed in June 2024, shared her experience:

"Most of their fields are located nearby, close to the house. Managing land situated high on the slopes proves to be considerably more difficult. The paths are treacherous, requiring ascents and descents over hilly terrain, which becomes even more perilous during the rainy season when the surfaces become slick. Harvesting also presents a significant challenge, as transporting yields from such a distance is laborious. Maintaining fields closer to home is more practical, even if they are smaller in size. The primary consideration is ease of management."

Agricultural land within topographical area B typically follows a shorter cultivation cycle, often from month to month, with brief intervals between harvests (Table 3). This practice reduces reliance on chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides to enhance crop yields. In both topographies, A and B, even when land remains fallow or is not actively under cultivation, it continues to offer advantages to farming households, including providing sustenance, medicinal resources, and opportunities for generating income. Furthermore, expanding agricultural land remains a viable option for future considerations.

Table 3 Characteristics of land use per household.
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Significant aspects of plant utilization on farms

Several significant aspects of crop incorporation on farms were described by farmer households, as detailed in Table 4. During interviews, the responses provided by the farmers were meticulously recorded, subsequently grouped based on the similarity of their opinions, and ultimately categorized according to the various ecosystem services (Fig. 4). Farmers reported that they primarily obtained supplying services from ecosystem utilization, including essentials like food, medicine, and nutrition, accounting for the highest response frequency at 52%. Meanwhile, governing and facilitating services were less frequently mentioned, constituting 24% and 20% of the responses. Both governing and facilitating services play crucial roles in maintaining the functions and processes of ecosystems, with critical contributions in areas such as nutrient cycling, climate regulation, and pest control.

Table 4 Significant aspects identified for the incorporation of plant in agriculture landscapes.
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Fig. 4
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Response frequency by ecosystem service classification.

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Most participants expressed favorable opinions throughout the discussion forum that delved into the beneficial outcomes of utilizing crops on agricultural land. However, there was an exception concerning the issue of crops taking up space that could be utilized for cultivating different varieties of crops. While a few participants expressed concerns that an accumulation of plant leaf litter could potentially heighten the risk of forest fires during the dry season, the consensus among the majority was overwhelmingly positive regarding the utilization of crops on agricultural land, primarily due to the valuable ecosystem services they contribute. Illustrating this positive sentiment, Mrs. N, a 39-year-old farmer interviewed in June 2024, shared:

“Rice for us is not only a source of livelihood, but also a symbol of togetherness and gratitude. The Tudang Sipulungtradition after the harvest, where we enjoy Peong (glutinous rice cooked in bamboo and then burned) and watch Mappadendang (a performance of pounding rice in cooperation), is clear evidence of how rice unites us in a culture that has been passed down for generations.”

Interviews with stakeholders further solidified the consensus on the vital role of crops, not just as a means of livelihood but also for their cultural significance.

Discussion

Farming households in Enrekang Regency have adopted agroforestry systems by capitalizing on the soil fertility in the region. Crop integration enables the creation of multifunctional agricultural landscapes that support economic needs and environmental sustainability. Households in Enrekang demonstrate dynamic and flexible adaptability in their agricultural practices. These changes are driven by the need to respond to variations in environmental conditions, such as climate change and soil fertility, as well as socio-ecological factors, such as market trends. Diversification strategies are implemented through the utilization of diverse biological resources, including the cultivation of different crop types and the integration of perennial crops. This biodiversity in the agricultural landscape enhances ecosystem services, such as soil health, water retention, and pest and disease resistance. The utilization of diverse biological resources also strengthens the resilience of farming systems, making households better equipped to deal with uncertainties due to climate change and fluctuations in socioeconomic conditions. The variety of crops in agroforestry systems also creates multiple sources of income, contributing to economic stability and livelihood sustainability.

Manage ecological services

Diversification

Farmers adeptly harness biodiversity by incorporating many crop species into their agricultural practices. By cultivating multiple crop species on their farms, agriculturalists can create a robust system that taps into the strengths of each plant variety. The integration of economic crops into this biodiverse framework further bolsters the financial stability of farming, ensuring that farmers are not solely dependent on a single crop for their income. Utilizing biodiversity as a tool for mitigating environmental risks40 underscores the importance of this practice in modern agriculture.

Crop diversification is a robust strategy for improving various aspects of agriculture and household well-being41,42. The variety of crops grown on farms helps reduce the risks associated with pest and plant disease attacks. Farmers are better positioned to face the challenges of climate variations, secure their livelihoods, and ensure sustainable food production.

Besides risk mitigation, crop diversification also provides additional ecological benefits. It promotes nutrient cycling in the soil, ensuring the availability of essential nutrients for plant growth43. Diverse crops can also lower soil temperature, increase moisture levels, and improve water retention, which are additional advantages contributing to agricultural ecosystems’ overall health and productivity14. In addition, integrating livestock into a diversified farming system increases profits even further. Livestock can utilize varied crop residues as feed, while their manure is valuable organic fertilizer, contributing to soil fertility44.

The concept of diversity in agriculture is multifaceted, not only through the variety of crops grown but also in the temporal and spatial dimensions of farming activities. Farmers actively diversify agricultural practices and income-generating activities throughout the year. Table 5 illustrates the seasonal planning of agriculture, such as fertilization and pest control. Spatial diversification is another strategy farmers employ to optimize the use of their land and resources45. Furthermore, spatial diversification allows crop rotation and intercropping, contributing to soil fertility and health44.

Table 5 Calendar of diverse revenue activities for diversification of means of subsistence.
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Communities in Enrekang generally apply uniform land use practices across different regions and times. These practices directly impact ecosystem utilization, soil fertility, and managed livelihoods, all in line with local knowledge frameworks. Settlement arrangement, considered a versatile and adaptive management approach, aims to minimize risks across different land types. The configuration of these settlements influences the intensity of cultivation and type of land utilization, prompting farmers to consider careful cost–benefit analyses related to land proximity, water source availability, and resource accessibility within the ecological system.

Flexibility

Farmers in this region manage their crops at different time phases by applying diverse strategies to sustain livelihoods. The discussion forums revealed that factors such as improved soil productivity and favorable local weather conditions, as detailed in Table 6, are critical determinants of crop utilization. This discussion was based on the perspective that crops are a persistent and integral element in the agricultural landscape. The main objective of this research was to understand the motivations behind the selection of post-drought crop varieties and crops deliberately cultivated on farms. As a result, diverse strategies adopted by farming households to sustain their livelihoods were identified, reflecting the importance of adaptability. These livelihood management and sustainability strategies exhibit variety and flexibility. The decision-making processes underlying these strategies influence the adaptability and sustainability of overall farm management, forming an interactive cycle that includes soil fertility management, food security, ecosystem services, and risk mitigation.

Table 6 Farmers’ methods of livelihood for increased climate resilience.
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Discussion forums revealed land use priorities and needs in the context of agriculture. Participants emphasized the importance of food crops, especially their nutritional value in supporting health. The dependence of many households on agricultural products for daily consumption further reinforces the significance of food crops. Furthermore, the discussion forums highlighted the economic value of food crops. The ability to sell crops in the market is an essential source of income that affects the economic stability of households. Aspects of ecosystem services provided by crops, such as improved soil fertility, pest control, and contribution to biodiversity, also came up in the discussion. Farmers recognize the crucial role of crops in maintaining ecological balance. While recognizing the benefits of crops, there is a view that excessive crops can reduce land for agricultural practices that are considered more beneficial for livelihoods and food security. Farmers understand that specific vegetation can create microclimates that favor crop production. However, a lack of understanding of management techniques, such as pruning to reduce shading caused by trees, leads them to opt for cutting and burning of crops. The need for proper information and guidance from agricultural extension services is emerging as a solution to improve crop management effectiveness. Information support will boost farmers’ confidence in adopting diverse management techniques.

Soil fertility management stands out as a crucial element in enabling farmers to adapt to different conditions. Numerous factors significantly influence farmers’ decisions on what to cultivate, considering the various challenges encountered across different times and locations. Feedback from the discussion forum highlighted soil type and quality as important factors influencing crop choice across time and space. Farmers demonstrated in-depth knowledge of soil quality, including identifying arable land and assessing soil texture through tactical methods aligned with those used by agricultural departments46. This aligns with similar soil classification systems and beliefs that shape management tactics7,21,27. Farmers generally observe that different crops yield better when grown on certain soil textures.

The region’s soil is generally divided into two main types, latosols, and andosols, each with different characteristics and utilization. Latosol soils, with their delicate texture and suitability for agriculture, are commonly used to cultivate rice, corn, cocoa, and coconut. Meanwhile, andosol soils rich in organic matter and minerals are more suitable for shallots, cabbage, tomatoes, chilies, and spring onions. A typical cropping pattern is a crop rotation of maize, shallots, cabbage, and chilies, especially on land with a high slope. Usually, maize is planted after a fallow period, followed by soya or groundnuts, when maize productivity declines. This cycle may repeat once or twice before the land is left fallow again. Farmers show a deep understanding of the influence of soil type on crop selection. They realize that certain crops can increase soil organic matter. This finding aligns with previous studies42,47 that show a close link between farmers’ knowledge of soil fertility and decision-making in crop selection.

Adaptability

Extensification of agricultural production has been a common strategy to overcome agricultural challenges, such as prolonged dry seasons48. Farmers tend to expand agricultural land, especially around villages, to increase crop yields. However, this expansion often extends into areas that could be better for agriculture, leading to deforestation and degradation of forested lands49.

Field observations show a close relationship between the distance of land from the village and its agricultural characteristics. Land close to villages tends to have lower crop densities, allowing for more significant agricultural expansion and shorter planting times before fallow. In addition, organic inputs are more common on land close to villages as longer fallow periods allow for soil fertility recovery50. In contrast, land far from the village generally has a higher crop density and a more extended fallow period. This suggests that farmers focus agricultural intensification on land closer to the village, while land further away may be managed under more extensive systems51.

Table 6 presents the various livelihood approaches that agricultural families highlighted throughout the discussion forums with farmers, revealing adaptation strategies to environmental fluctuations such as droughts and floods. Farmers emphasized diversifying ecosystems and farms to reduce risks41. In land-limited areas, shorter fallow cycles are an option to increase annual crop yields. However, local knowledge and experience show that this practice can reduce long-term soil fertility52,53. Crops play an essential role in farmers’ livelihood strategies, not only as a source of food but also as a source of additional income through biological resource services17. The contribution of food crops to households’ economic and nutritional stability makes them an essential component of their farming systems. Studies in Enrekang show that the sustainability of ecological services significantly influences the choice of crops and farming methods, emphasizing the complexity of farming practices in the region.

Agriculturist perspectives on climate change

Farmers have adopted agroforestry systems as an adaptive strategy to deal with climate fluctuations and ensure the stability of agricultural production throughout the year. This integrated approach helps diversify risks and minimize economic losses due to crop failure in one crop. The adoption of multiple agroforestry practices can increase resilience to climate uncertainty. For example, when one crop fails due to unfavorable weather conditions, yields from other, more tolerant crops can offset losses. Crop diversification in agroforestry systems stabilizes farmers’ income and contributes to the sustainability of the farming system. In addition, agroforestry practices also play an essential role in spatial and temporal resource management, optimizing the utilization of available land and nutrients54.

Discussion forums were conducted to explore the impacts of climate change on crop management practices at the farm level. The discussions involved diverse farmers who shared their experiences and strategies in utilizing crops to adapt to and mitigate climate change. Awareness and knowledge of climate change are essential in shaping long-term crop cultivation strategies on farms. These long-term management strategies are essential to ensure food security amidst climate uncertainty. Farmers shared their observations and perceptions of climate change over the past five years and its impact on various aspects of crop cultivation. There was general agreement on the negative impacts of prolonged drought on agricultural productivity. Droughts cause water scarcity, which affects plant health and growth and decreases soil fertility.

In contrast, increased rainfall is generally considered positive as it increases water availability for crops and livestock. However, farmers also recognize that excessive rainfall can lead to flooding and soil erosion, adversely affecting crops. This discussion highlighted that adaptation to climate change requires a flexible and dynamic approach. Farmers need to continuously adapt and develop resilient farming systems to face the challenges of a changing climate55. In addition to practical strategies, there is a strong emphasis on integrating faith and spirituality in dealing with the impacts of climate change. Farming families, especially during the dry season, actively pray for weather conditions that favor their farming activities. A collective prayer supplicates to God for blessings, protection, and success in agriculture. This practice reflects the close spiritual ties within the farming community. Collective prayers also strengthen solidarity and provide moral support amidst the challenges of climate fluctuations.

Implications management for enhanced resilience

Traditional agricultural knowledge and practices remain essential in shaping sustainable agricultural systems56. This approach emphasizes the integration of local wisdom with scientific knowledge and modern extension strategies. One example is the application of agroforestry practices, which combine traditional knowledge of plant and tree interactions with modern ecological principles57. Increased diversity and flexibility in agricultural management strategies effectively reduce risk and increase resilience to climatic and economic shocks21.

Climate change adaptation techniques have been documented in various parts of the world58. However, the effectiveness of risk reduction methods adapted to local contexts still requires further research59. Identification and dissemination of effective adaptation techniques for specific regions and farming systems is also crucial. To increase resilience to climate change, significant investments in extension services, access to finance, and land tenure reform are required23. Support for natural climate solutions, such as forest conservation and sustainable agriculture, is crucial for mitigation and adaptation efforts60. Investments in rural areas and the agricultural sector are essential for maintaining economic prosperity and food security in the future24,61,62.

Conclusion

This research framework provides insights into how farmers understand and integrate climate change into their livelihood strategies and agroforestry system management. Preliminary findings indicate that farmers have a relatively good understanding of climate change and its impacts on their farming practices. This understanding is integrated into their farming strategies’ long-term planning and operationalization. Furthermore, farmers demonstrate a strong understanding of agroecological principles, reflected in their soil management practices, crop cultivation, and natural resource utilization. In addition to practical strategies, farmers emphasized the importance of social and spiritual ties within their communities to reduce vulnerability to climate change. Agricultural intensification strategies were also identified as an essential element in their adaptation.

Agroforestry systems have received considerable attention for the multiple services they provide. They provide farming households with various products, including food, nutrients, and medicines. Excess production can be sold in the market, providing an additional source of income. The main factor that drives farmers to integrate crops into their land, including selecting specific crop species, is fulfilling household needs [reference needed]. This fits the context in the Enrekang region, where most farmers practice subsistence agriculture. Besides providing a direct food source, agroforestry can increase farmers’ income by selling timber, fruits, or non-timber forest products. This increased income can indirectly contribute to increased food crop production through investments in agricultural inputs or better technology. Farmers also highly value the role of agroforestry in maintaining a stable microclimate and soil health. They recognize that these factors contribute to increased crop yields, strengthening food security, nutritional quality, and household income.

While climate change influences farm household decisions, there is limited evidence that climate change discourse is a crucial driver of adaptation. Farmers demonstrate adaptive capacity to various factors, including socio-economic limitations, declining yields, and climate change. In Enrekang, farmers have long practiced agroecological systems in response to environmental variability. Analyses through local livelihood models show that farmers in Enrekang proactively adapt by implementing diverse natural, financial, social, and technical resource management strategies to mitigate risks. Findings from the discussion forums confirm that farmers deeply understand the ecological benefits of the crops they cultivate. They strategically utilize these benefits as an adaptation measure to climate fluctuations.