Introduction

Academic procrastination refers to the act of deliberately delaying academic tasks, which results in experiencing subjective discomfort (Rad et al., 2023; Wiwatowska et al., 2023). Academic procrastination is a crucial academic concern among university students (Li et al., 2020; Rabin et al., 2011). Prior studies indicate that academic procrastination can not only impair resistance to distraction (Wiwatowska et al., 2023), academic engagement (Li et al., 2023) and academic achievement (Gareau et al., 2019), but also decrease subjective well-being (Arifiana et al., 2020; Bu et al., 2021), leading to internalizing problems, such as anxiety (Wang, 2021) and depression (Yang et al., 2022).

Academic stress is a primary cause of academic procrastination among university students (Li and Zhao, 2018). Research has revealed that higher levels of perceived stress are associated with more severe academic procrastination behaviors among university students (Muliani et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2022). Academic stress, among the various pressures experienced by students, has consistently been identified as a significant predictor of academic procrastination in numerous cross-sectional questionnaire studies (e.g., Lee and Choi, 2014; Lu and Zhao, 2018; Niazov et al., 2022; Rahardjo et al., 2013). However, longitudinal research indicating the long-term impact of academic stress on academic procrastination is limited. Furthermore, the internal mechanisms that connect academic stress to academic procrastination remain unclear. An in-depth examination of mediating factors that link academic stress to academic procrastination can provide a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms and offer empirical support and practical strategies for preventing and addressing academic procrastination among university students.

Mediating role of problematic TikTok use

Problematic TikTok use may serve as an important mediating variable linking academic stress and academic procrastination among university students. The increasing popularity of short-form video apps such as TikTok has shed light on the issue of problematic TikTok use, which has emerged as a socially significant phenomenon garnering widespread attention (Joiner et al., 2023; Qin et al., 2022; Wang and Lei, 2022). Research shows that problematic short-form video use often displays several typical features, including lack of control (the inability to manage excessive use of short-form video apps), withdrawal symptoms (experiencing negative emotions when unable to access short-form videos), escapism (resorting to short-form videos in response to negative emotions), and inefficiency (problematic short-form video use significantly impacts daily life and social adaptation) (Liu et al., 2022; Montag and Markett, 2024; Qin et al., 2022; Yao et al., 2023; Zahra et al., 2022). In essence, problematic TikTok use, as opposed to regular or non-problematic usage, typically involves excessive engagement, psychological dependency, and an overall state of compromised physical and mental functioning (Liu et al., 2022). Currently, there is limited research on the factors influencing problematic TikTok use, as many studies focus on general problematic Internet or smartphone use rather than specific behaviors like TikTok use. Existing research indicates that problematic short-form video app use may be influenced by individual factors (such as self-control and self-efficacy) and environmental factors (like parental neglect and school connectedness), with these factors interacting to shape problematic short-form video use (Li et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2022).

The statistical report shows that TikTok has accumulated a global total of 1.8 billion monthly active users (Aslam, 2021). According to the recent data from the China Internet Network Information Center (2023), the user base of numerous popular short-form video applications, including TikTok, in China has reached 1.026 billion, which accounts for 95.2% of the total Chinese Internet users. Furthermore, a survey of 11,267 Chinese university students revealed that over 90% of young people in China use short-form video apps for entertainment, with about 70% of students spending over an hour per day on these apps and nearly 30% investing more than 2 h daily (China Youth Daily, 2022). Due to time constraints, short-form videos often focus on specific information, leading to incomplete content that appears fragmented. Additionally, multiple fragmented contents are frequently edited and spliced together in their presentation, highlighting the fragmented nature of short-form videos. Short-form videos with fragmented features are perfectly suited to the relatively short, discontinuous, and difficult-to-use snippets of time that university students may encounter in their daily work or life. Therefore, short-form video apps like TikTok may be particularly attractive to young people, making it easy for them to become addicted and overuse them, leading to problematic usage behaviors.

Studies have shown that students who overly engage in short-form videos may experience attention deficits (Chen et al., 2022) and memory loss, as well as negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, and stress (Sha and Dong, 2021). Problematic short-form video app use was also correlated with decreased academic performance, possibly resulting in mental health issues among university students (Zahra et al., 2022). Furthermore, prior studies have indicated that problematic Internet use constitutes a considerable risk factor for academic procrastination (Demir and Kutlu, 2018). The more severe the degree of problematic Internet use, the more severe the academic procrastination behaviors among university students (Hayat et al., 2020). Recent research has demonstrated a link between problematic smartphone use and academic procrastination (e.g., Kaya, 2024; Li et al., 2020), as smartphones have emerged as the primary means of accessing the Internet. Problematic TikTok use can be classified as a common manifestation of problematic Internet use or smartphone use (Liu et al., 2022). Therefore, there might be a positive relationship between problematic TikTok use and academic procrastination among university students.

In addition, academic stress may directly trigger problematic TikTok use behaviors. Research has shown that perceived stress is a risk factor for both problematic Internet use and problematic smartphone use (Feng et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2018). Not only can stress directly predict problematic Internet use, but it can also indirectly predict problematic Internet use through personality traits such as mindfulness and conscientiousness (Choi et al., 2021). University students face significant academic stress due to the multitude of courses and tasks they must complete. Some students thus may use short-form videos as a stress relief tool (China Youth Daily, 2022). The entertainment and fragmented nature of short-form videos make them particularly appealing to young people, and the use of artificial intelligence algorithms in short-form video apps can significantly contribute to problematic behaviors (Liu et al., 2022; Meral, 2021). Furthermore, the strength model of self-control posits that self-control is dependent on limited psychological resources (Baumeister et al., 2007). Stress can deplete these resources, resulting in self-control failures (Duckworth et al., 2013; Hamilton et al., 2014; Park et al., 2016) and engagement in various problematic behaviors (Gibbons et al., 2012; Jeong et al., 2019). Substance abuse and technology dependence such as problematic Internet use or problematic smartphone use are often linked to insufficient self-control caused by elevated stress levels (Cho et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2018; Song and Park, 2019). Consequently, Chinese youths facing high academic pressure may deplete their psychological resources, resorting to excessive consumption of short-form videos on TikTok to alleviate stress, which in turn leads to heightened academic procrastination. As academic stress is a positive predictor of problematic TikTok use, and problematic TikTok use in turn leads to academic procrastination, it is evident that problematic TikTok use may serve as a significant mediator in the relationship between academic stress and academic procrastination.

Gender differences

There may be gender differences in the direct effect of academic stress and its indirect path through problematic TikTok use. Previous research has found significant gender differences in problematic Internet use, with males having higher levels of problematic Internet use than females overall (Anderson et al., 2017; Rigelsky et al., 2021). With respect to specific addictive behaviors, it has been observed that males exhibit higher levels of online gaming disorders (Dong and Potenza, 2022; Stevens et al., 2021). Conversely, females tend to display higher levels of problematic social media use (Aparicio-Martínez et al., 2020; Tang and Koh, 2017). Although short-form video applications possess social properties, their primary purpose remains entertainment-oriented in Chinese young individuals (China Youth Daily, 2022; Liu et al., 2022). Moreover, studies have indicated that males are more likely to utilize the Internet for recreational activities (Liang et al., 2016). Consequently, problematic TikTok use may be more severe in male students. Furthermore, research has indicated significant gender differences in levels of academic procrastination, with male students exhibiting more severe academic procrastination behaviors than female students (Balkis and Erdinç, 2017; Mandap, 2016). Therefore, male students may experience more pronounced problematic TikTok use in response to academic stress compared to their female counterparts, which in turn may contribute to heightened academic procrastination behaviors. Previous studies have also indicated that when exposed to stress, males exhibit a propensity for more pronounced addictive behaviors, such as Internet gaming disorder and problematic short-form video use, in contrast to females (Andreetta et al., 2020; Tu et al., 2023). However, some studies suggest that stress factors have a more pronounced predictive effect on technology dependence in females, such as problematic smartphone use or problematic social media use (Liu et al., 2020; Tu et al., 2023). Although the current research establishes a foundation for exploring whether gender moderates the direct and indirect effects of academic stress, it does not conclusively ascertain the gender-specific impact of academic stress, namely, whether academic stress exerts a more pronounced influence on males or females. Hence, our focus lies predominantly on examining the potential role of gender moderation in the direct and indirect impacts of academic stress on academic procrastination, as opposed to conjecturing whether males or females would display heightened problematic TikTok use or academic procrastination when experiencing academic stress.

The present study

The present study aimed to investigate the impact of academic stress on academic procrastination among university students, with a focus on the potential mediating role of problematic TikTok use. We also sought to examine whether there were significant gender differences in the mediating effect of problematic TikTok use. To rigorously test these hypotheses, a one-year longitudinal study design with three waves of data collection was employed. The present study focuses on analyzing a mediation model comprising three primary variables: the independent variable, the mediator variable, and the dependent variable. By employing a longitudinal research design to evaluate these variables at three different time points, we can effectively determine the temporal sequence of these variables within the mediation model. Avoiding the simultaneous measurement of all three variables can help in definitively identifying the independent, mediator, and dependent variables and eliminates the necessity to consider alternative models like reverse causality. Building upon previous longitudinal studies with three waves of data (e.g., Carreiras et al., 2022; You and Lin, 2015; Yuan et al., 2021), we implemented a 6-month interval between two questionnaire administrations. Therefore, time-point 1 (T1) represents the baseline measurement, time-point 2 (T2) corresponds to six months later, and time-point 3 (T3) indicates one year later. The following hypotheses were put forward:

Hypothesis 1a: T1 Academic stress will significantly predict T2 problematic TikTok use.

Hypothesis 1b: T2 Problematic TikTok use will significantly predict T3 academic procrastination.

Hypothesis 1c: T2 Problematic TikTok use will significantly mediate the effect of T1 academic stress on T3 academic procrastination.

Hypothesis 2a: Gender will significantly moderate the effect of T1 academic stress on T3 academic procrastination.

Hypothesis 2b: Gender will significantly moderate the mediating role of T2 problematic TikTok use in the association between T1 academic stress and T3 academic procrastination.

Methods

Participants and procedure

University students not engaging with short-form video platforms like TikTok were excluded from the study. Questionnaires were administered in classrooms using a traditional pen-and-paper format. A total of 636 university students (328 males and 308 females) from two universities in South China participated in the initial survey (Time 1). At Time 2, six months later, 97.2% of the initial participants (318 males and 300 females) completed the follow-up questionnaire. At Time 3, another six months later, 92.8% of the initial sample (303 males and 287 females) completed the third survey. Therefore, data from the remaining 590 university students were included in the formal analysis to test our hypotheses. The mean age of these emerging adults was 19.83 years (SD = 1.24).

Measurements

Academic stress

At Time 1, academic stress was assessed using a four-item scale, which has been used in previous studies (Jiang et al., 2021; Jun and Choi, 2015), and was rated on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Sample items included statements such as “I feel stress from too much homework” and “I am afraid of obtaining a bad grade.” The internal consistency of this scale was 0.89.

Problematic TikTok use

At Time 2, the assessment of problematic TikTok use was conducted using seven items rated on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always), which was adapted from the Mobile Phone Addiction Type Scale (Liu et al., 2022). Sample items included statements such as “I can spend hours exclusively watching various short-form mobile phone videos on TikTok.” The internal consistency of this scale was 0.86.

Academic procrastination

At both Time 1 and Time 3, academic procrastination was assessed using the Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students (PASS, Solomon and Rothblum, 1984). PASS consists of two sections. The first section encompasses 18 items that assess the frequency of procrastination, its severity, and students’ inclination to reduce procrastination behavior across six academic tasks. The second section comprises 26 items, exploring 13 potential reasons for procrastination. The first section measures the extent of procrastination in six different academic tasks, such as writing a term paper and studying for an exam. Three questions were asked for each academic task: (1) To what degree do you procrastinate on this task? (2) To what degree is procrastination on this task a problem for you? (3) To what extent do you want to decrease your tendency to procrastinate on this task? Participants responded on a scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Following the recommendation of Solomon and Rothblum (1984), the PASS items pertaining to (a) the frequency with which respondents procrastinate on a task, and (b) whether their procrastination on that task is a problem were aggregated to provide an overall measure of academic procrastination. As our research emphasizes the intensity of academic procrastination, we exclusively utilized scores from the first and second items across the six academic tasks, amounting to a total of 12 items, while excluding scores related to the willingness to decrease procrastination. Previous studies have also analyzed academic procrastination scores using only these 12 items (e.g., Chen Yan and Lin, 2013; Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Ren et al., 2021; Yockey, 2016). The internal consistency of the 12-item academic procrastination scale was 0.96 at Time 1 and 0.95 at Time 3.

Analytic strategies

An initial analysis was conducted to investigate gender and urban-rural differences in the core variables. Subsequently, a Pearson correlational analysis was utilized to examine the intercorrelations among these variables. Following that, a mediation analysis and a moderated mediation analysis were performed using the SPSS macro PROCESS (Hayes, 2013) to investigate the mediating role of problematic TikTok use and the gender differences. Covariates such as age, urban-rural background, TikTok use time, and baseline academic procrastination were included to mitigate potential confounders on the regression outcomes. Additionally, research has suggested that socioeconomic status (SES) could be a significant contextual variable associated with problematic mobile phone use among adolescents and young adults, particularly problematic social media utilization (Goldfarb and Prince, 2008; He et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2021). Hence, family income, representing SES, was also included as a covariate.

Results

Preliminary analysis

The independent samples t-test revealed significant differences in core variables between males and females, as shown in Table 1. Specifically, males exhibited lower scores in T1 academic stress (t = −3.76, p < 0.001) and higher scores in T1 academic procrastination (t = 2.63, p < 0.01), T2 problematic TikTok use (t = 5.18, p < 0.001), and T3 academic procrastination (t = 3.12, p < 0.01). Nevertheless, no significant differences were detected in core variables between urban and rural university students.

Table 1 Test for the gender and urban-rural differences in the core variables.
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The correlations among the variables are displayed in Table 2. In both the male and female groups, T1 academic stress exhibited positive associations with T1 academic procrastination, T2 problematic TikTok use, and T3 academic procrastination.

Table 2 Intercorrelations between variables.
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Testing for the mediation model

Table 3 presents the results of the mediation analysis. After controlling for age, urban-rural background, family income, TikTok use time, and T1 academic procrastination, T1 academic stress positively predicted T3 academic procrastination (β = 0.21, p < 0.001) when the mediator (problematic TikTok use) was not taken into account. Moreover, T1 academic stress had a negative impact on T2 problematic TikTok use (β = 0.28, p < 0.001). When the mediator was included in the analysis, T2 problematic TikTok use showed a positive association with T3 academic procrastination (β = 0.21, p < 0.001), and the predictive effect of T1 academic stress remained significant (β = 0.16, p < 0.001).

Table 3 Mediation analysis of problematic TikTok use.
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The bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method (described in Table 4) reveals that the mediating effect of T2 problematic TikTok use in the association between T1 academic stress and T3 academic procrastination was 0.06, accompanied by a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.03 to 0.09. The mediating effect accounted for 27.0% of the overall effect of academic stress on academic procrastination.

Table 4 Total, direct, and indirect effects.
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Testing for the moderated mediation model

Table 5 presents the moderated mediation analysis to test for gender differences in the mediating role of problematic TikTok use. After controlling for age, urban-rural background, family income, TikTok use time, and T1 academic procrastination, T1 academic stress positively predicted T2 problematic TikTok use (β = 0.30, p < 0.001). However, the interaction of T1 academic stress and gender negatively predicted T2 problematic TikTok use (β = −0.37, p < 0.001). The relationship between T1 academic stress and T2 problematic TikTok use was strong in male university students (β = 0.48, p < 0.001), but was weak in female university students (β = 0.12, p < 0.01) (see Fig. 1). Additionally, T2 problematic TikTok use positively predicted T3 academic procrastination (β = 0.17, p < 0.001), while the interaction of T2 problematic TikTok use and gender negatively predicted T3 academic procrastination (β = −0.19, p < 0.05). The relationship between T2 problematic TikTok use and T3 academic procrastination was more potent in male university students (β = 0.36, p < 0.001) than in female university students (β = 0.19, p = 0.06) (see Fig. 2). Furthermore, T1 academic stress positively predicted T3 academic procrastination when accounting for the mediator, moderator, and covariates (β = 0.16, p < 0.001), with no moderating effect of gender on the direct relationship (β = −0.07, p = 0.40).

Table 5 Moderated mediation model analysis.
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Fig. 1
figure 1

The association between T1 academic stress and T2 problematic TikTok use in males and females.

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Fig. 2
figure 2

The relationship between T2 problematic TikTok use and T3 academic procrastination in males and females.

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Table 6 presents the direct and indirect effects in males and females, respectively. The direct effect of T1 academic stress on T3 academic procrastination was statistically significant for both male (β = 0.19, p < 0.01) and female university students (β = 0.12, p < 0.05). However, the indirect effect of academic stress on academic procrastination through problematic TikTok use was notably significant and robust in male students (β = 0.13, p < 0.001), but not significant in females (β = −0.01, p > 0.05). Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the mediation of problematic TikTok use in the longitudinal association between academic stress and academic procrastination among males and females, respectively.

Table 6 Conditional effect analysis.
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Fig. 3: The mediation model of problematic TikTok use in males.
figure 3

Age, urban-rural background, family income, TikTok use time, and T1 academic stress were controlled in the model. The coefficient enclosed in parentheses indicates the value of the direct effect in the absence of the mediator variable. ***p < 0.001.

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Fig. 4: The mediation model of problematic TikTok use in females.
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Age, urban-rural background, family income, TikTok use time, and T1 academic stress were controlled in the model. The coefficient enclosed in parentheses indicates the value of the direct effect in the absence of the mediator variable. *p < 0.05.

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Discussion

The present one-year longitudinal study investigated the relationship between academic stress and academic procrastination, while also analyzing the role of problematic TikTok use as a mediator and exploring its gender differences. The findings demonstrated that academic stress not only positively and directly predicted academic procrastination, but it also indirectly affected students’ tendency to procrastinate academic tasks by increasing their problematic TikTok use behaviors. Moreover, the indirect impact of academic stress through problematic TikTok use was found to be more prominent in males than in females, whereas the direct effect of academic stress on academic procrastination was significant for both male and female university students. The current study stands as one of the earliest research that explores the effect of problematic TikTok use as a mediator and the underlying gender differences in the long-term association between academic stress and academic procrastination. Our study not only enhances the understanding of how academic stress is longitudinally associated with academic procrastination but also provides insights into whether the direct effect of academic stress and its indirect effect mediated by problematic TikTok use vary among students of different genders The findings expand and provide useful insights into the existing literature on academic stress and procrastination, and they offer practical implications for preventing and intervening in problematic TikTok use among university students, as well as addressing their academic procrastination.

In line with prior cross-sectional analyses (Li and Zhao, 2018; Niazov et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022), this longitudinal study also found that academic stress significantly and positively predicted academic procrastination. According to the strength model of self-control, stress can deplete limited self-control resources, resulting in subsequent self-control failure (Baumeister et al., 2007). Procrastination behavior can be seen as an instance of self-control failure (Liu et al., 2020). Our research not only demonstrates the long-term impact of academic stress on academic procrastination but also contributes novelty by examining the crucial role of TikTok use among young people in the mobile Internet era. The findings advance and expand upon previous research by demonstrating that problematic TikTok use is a key factor linking academic stress to academic procrastination. The mediating role of problematic TikTok use can be discussed in terms of the two stages of the mediation model.

In the first stage of the mediation model, it was observed that academic stress significantly predicted problematic TikTok use, supporting Hypothesis 1a. This finding aligns with previous studies investigating the influence of academic stress on problematic Internet use (Jun and Choi, 2015; Zhang et al., 2022). Research has revealed that academic stress can act as a trigger for various forms of problematic behaviors, with highly-stressed students resorting to smoking and drinking excessively to cope with their stress (González et al., 2013; Woolman et al., 2015), or turning to online gaming and social media as a primary means of relieving their stress (Bae et al., 2020; Jeong et al., 2019). The present study indicates that short-form video apps, like TikTok, are increasingly popular among university students and are utilized as coping mechanisms to handle academic stress. The entertaining features of short-form videos may have an immediate stress-reduction effect, while their fragmented nature allows university students to conveniently utilize their fragmented time for watching or creating short-form videos in various life situations, thereby potentially increasing the risk of dependence. Furthermore, stress may contribute to problematic TikTok use through the depletion of self-control resources. Future research should delve deeper into the intricate connections among stress, self-control depletion, problematic TikTok use, and procrastination.

In the second stage of the mediation model, it was discovered that problematic TikTok use exacerbated academic procrastination, thereby supporting Hypothesis 1b. Prior studies have presented that problematic Internet use amplifies negative emotions and diminishes self-regulation (Agbaria, 2021; Yu and Zhou, 2021), both of which are proximal factors leading to academic procrastination (Eisenbeck et al., 2019; Li et al., 2022). The findings of our study indicate that problematic TikTok use has a comparably adverse impact as general problematic Internet use. Nonetheless, our research shows its added value by exploring the longitudinal effect of the emerging form of problematic Internet use (i.e., problematic TikTok use) on academic procrastination. The mediation model of problematic TikTok use illustrates a complex mechanism underlying academic procrastination among university students, where environmental stress and accompanying problematic behaviors can trigger and intensify procrastination in learning.

Additionally, the presence of substantial gender differences in the mediation model of problematic TikTok use offers backing for Hypothesis 2b, yet do not support Hypothesis 2a. A significant mediating effect of problematic TikTok use was exclusively observed among male university students, with no significant effect among their female counterparts. Gender differences in mediating effects are complex manifestations that arise from gender differences in the core variables themselves. The t-test results in our study align with previous research indicating that females generally experience higher levels of academic stress than males (Banu et al., 2015; Misra et al., 2000), whereas males exhibit higher levels of problematic Internet use (Anderson et al., 2017; Rigelsky et al., 2021) and procrastination behaviors when compared to females. (Balkis and Erdinç, 2017; Mandap, 2016). Drawing upon the extensive groundwork laid by prior research exploring individual gender disparities across various variables, our study achieves a pivotal breakthrough by delving deeper into the analysis of whether, and if so, what specific types of gender differences exist within the intricate relationships linking these variables. Our study reveals that the influence of academic stress on problematic behaviors, as well as its indirect effect on academic procrastination mediated by problematic TikTok usage, appears to be more pronounced among male individuals. When confronted with stress, males frequently display a greater inclination towards emotional inhibition, which can lead them to adopt maladaptive coping mechanisms (Matud, 2004). In contrast, females tend to seek support more frequently, as evidenced by their increased utilization of problem-focused support seeking and emotion-focused support seeking compared to males (Madhyastha et al., 2014). Consequently, the difference in coping may contribute to higher levels of problematic behaviors and academic procrastination in males than in females.

It is noteworthy that women also utilize social media platforms to seek online support. Several studies have indicated that females are more active users of social media in general, interacting with individuals who have similar interests and looking for communities where they can connect over shared experiences (Aparicio-Martínez et al., 2020; Tang and Koh, 2017; Samuel et al., 2024). In our study, we observed that males exhibited a higher incidence of problematic TikTok use, especially under academic pressure. Our finding is consistent with a previous study which indicated that stress has a stronger impact on problematic short-form video use in males compared to females (Tu et al., 2023). When discussing the intricate outcomes of gender differences in social media use, it is essential to take into account the fundamental functional and motivational distinctions between TikTok and traditional social media platforms such as Facebook or WeChat. Regarding functionality, traditional social media platforms like Facebook or WeChat prioritize social interactions, especially with acquaintances (Boyd and Ellison, 2007; Ellison and Boyd, 2013), while TikTok emphasizes entertainment, encouraging users to share and view amusing life moments and engage with a broader audience beyond their immediate connections (Felício and Peres, 2023; Yang and Ha, 2021). In terms of user motivation, the primary drive for using traditional social media platforms is to establish or maintain interpersonal relationships (Boyd and Ellison, 2007; Ellison and Boyd, 2013), whereas short-form video platforms such as TikTok are primarily used for relaxation and entertainment (China Youth Daily, 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Yang and Ha, 2021). Consequently, females tend to use Facebook and WeChat for communication with close friends, while males lean towards TikTok for sharing and viewing entertaining content. These behavioral disparities may become more apparent during periods of heightened stress. The gender differences suggest that male university students may require more focused support to address their problematic behaviors, particularly concerning Internet use and procrastination during academic stress.

Furthermore, it is essential to emphasize that, after controlling for various potential confounding factors, no significant gender moderation was observed in the direct relationship between academic stress and academic procrastination. This finding aligns with previous research that underscores the substantial impact of academic stress on procrastination tendencies (Lee and Choi, 2014; Lu and Zhao, 2018; Niazov et al., 2022; Rahardjo et al., 2013). Such evidence suggests a pervasive direct influence of academic stress on students, regardless of gender differences. Therefore, the management of academic stress is critical in educational interventions aimed at reducing academic procrastination among students.

Implications and limitations

The present study offers significant implications for educational practice. Firstly, educational institutions should consider incorporating various forms of mental health activities, such as lectures or group counseling, to alleviate academic stress among university students. As academic stress has a lasting negative impact on both male and female students’ tendency to procrastinate in their academics, implementing multiple intervention activities can help reduce procrastination behaviors in learning. Secondly, since problematic TikTok use is a significant factor contributing to academic procrastination among university students experiencing academic stress, it is essential for both schools and families to monitor students’ use of short-form video apps and implement timely preventive measures to address problematic TikTok use. Limiting the use time of short-form video apps and encouraging students to relieve stress through more positive activities, such as exercise, may help prevent problematic use of TikTok. Finally, the prevalence of problematic TikTok use and academic procrastination appears to be more pronounced among male university students in comparison to their female counterparts. Therefore, educators and family members should specifically emphasize these issues for male students and offer tailored support to help them address these difficulties.

Three limitations need to be acknowledged. Firstly, the findings in the present study are based on a sample of Chinese university students, which restricts the generalizability of the results. Replication studies with participants from similar age groups in various countries and cultures are essential to strengthen the significance of the associations identified in our study. Secondly, the current study solely focused on investigating the mediating role of problematic TikTok use in the relationship between academic stress and academic procrastination among university students, with no exploration into other age groups. However, research suggests that problematic TikTok use among children and teenagers is also becoming an increasingly severe social issue (China Internet Network Information Center, 2022). Future studies could explore the negative impacts of problematic TikTok use among children and teenagers. Thirdly, the present study only focused on problematic TikTok use and did not compare various types of problematic Internet use or problematic smartphone use. In addition to problematic TikTok use, other forms of problematic social media use (Ahmadi and Zeinali, 2018) and gaming disorder (Yeh et al., 2017) are closely linked to academic procrastination. Future studies could compare the mediating effects of different types of problematic Internet use behaviors on academic procrastination.

Conclusions

Problematic TikTok use has become an increasingly serious hot topic issue among university students, but there is no research that investigates whether problematic TikTok use plays a crucial role in the long-term impact of academic stress on academic procrastination. In the present study, a one-year longitudinal study with three waves of data collection was conducted to analyze the mediating effect of problematic TikTok use between academic stress and academic procrastination, and its gender differences. The results showed that university students’ academic stress not only directly predicted academic procrastination but also exacerbated academic procrastination behaviors by increasing problematic TikTok use. Moreover, the indirect effect of academic stress on academic procrastination, mediated by problematic TikTok use, was found to be more pronounced among male students compared to their female counterparts. Through a nuanced examination of the mediating effects of problematic TikTok use and the lens of gender differences, the outcomes of the present study not only elucidate the mechanisms underlying how academic stress impacts academic procrastination but also shed light on whether this indirect influence, mediated by problematic TikTok usage, is more potent in males compared to females. These findings highlight that mitigating academic procrastination among university students not only requires attention to academic stress but also to problematic short-form video app use, with special focus on male students’ problematic TikTok use behaviors.